How To Write A College Application Essay

How To Write A College Application Essay Sadness marinated as winter break ended, and 3AM bedtimes became nonexistent. I walked through my home in fuzzy socks, hoping school would delay itself one more week! That winter I walked around in my big, warm wool sweater complemented by my glistening shaved head. The spirit and camaraderie of black college living is a lifestyle - the HBCU lifestyle! We're committed to keeping you connected to the black college living experience, bringing you the latest on everything, from scholarships and dorm living to Greek life and alumni giving. My Christmas presents no longer had much of my time, and I struggled finding the coziest jacket for ice-cold temperatures. As Christmas time floated away, I began to cherish the moments. I have also included a sample essay from this past application cycle to give you an example of what we consider a strong essay, and it is from “interesting or amusing story” prompt. “There are 745 colleges with at least 1 application file on AdmitSee.com, and 286 colleges with 10+ application files on the site,” Fayal said. “If you take out diversity candidates and student athletes, the difference between legacy and non-legacy students gets really scary,” Fayal said. After you have written your essay, be sure to share it with friends, family, and teachers for feedback. This is another step that can initially seem completely skippable, but organizing your writing can save you considerable stress and frustration. A good writing plan can streamline or even eliminate the need to do any significant rewrites. With so many other things in your schedule, this process can initially seem like a waste of time. However, it will save you a lot of time in the long run. If you later realize that you misread the prompt, you might need to start the writing process from scratch. Universities love to showcase achievers in their promos and alumni newsletters as this is a way to attract more enrollments. Exhilaration filled my body with new year jitters and reminders that half a school year remained. Create a rough outline, including approximately how long each paragraph needs to be in order to complete the essay within the word count limits. Creating a schedule, even if you need to modify it later, gets your brain in motion. Like the first item, this isn’t something that should take a lot of time. Read about the history of the school, from foundation to the present. Get the salient aspects of the school into your essay. Speaking of Mike's essay title, be aware that titles can lend real impact to an essay if they are carefully thought out. After you have finished your essay's final revision and you're satisfied that it can't get much better, reread it one more time. Look for one or two key aspects that you may be able to work into a title. Admissions offices are honed to know if the essay is portraying a person in an authentic way. If it rings false, your chances of getting admitted have fallen. The passion in your writing comes through when its true to you. Treat your college essay as though you were preparing a resume for a well paying job. You must work on selling yourself even if you are not comfortable doing so. If you do not, someone else will and your dreams could be shattered. Please provide concrete examples on how and where you demonstrated abilities to lead a pack or have stood out in a crowd with exemplary performance. Besides, this is the exciting part about writing the essay, you get to really let yourself shine. Understand the school’s culture, and what looms large as seeming important to the school.

Uchicago Supplemental Essay Questions

Uchicago Supplemental Essay Questions And nobody wants to read about your losing team, either. Financial education curriculum by Washington State Employees Credit Union. This Student Workbook was developed to help students link responsible financial habits and future success. Create a rough outline, including approximately how long each paragraph needs to be in order to complete the essay within the word count limits. Creating a schedule, even if you need to modify it later, gets your brain in motion. Like the first item, this isn’t something that should take a lot of time. This is another step that can initially seem completely skippable, but organizing your writing can save you considerable stress and frustration. A good writing plan can streamline or even eliminate the need to do any significant rewrites. If you do not, someone else will and your dreams could be shattered. Please provide concrete examples on how and where you demonstrated abilities to lead a pack or have stood out in a crowd with exemplary performance. Universities love to showcase achievers in their promos and alumni newsletters as this is a way to attract more enrollments. Exhilaration filled my body with new year jitters and reminders that half a school year remained. Sadness marinated as winter break ended, and 3AM bedtimes became nonexistent. That winter I walked around in my big, warm wool sweater complemented by my glistening shaved head. The spirit and camaraderie of black college living is a lifestyle - the HBCU lifestyle! We're committed to keeping you connected to the black college living experience, bringing you the latest on everything, from scholarships and dorm living to Greek life and alumni giving. Treat your college essay as though you were preparing a resume for a well paying job. You must work on selling yourself even if you are not comfortable doing so. I walked through my home in fuzzy socks, hoping school would delay itself one more week! My Christmas presents no longer had much of my time, and I struggled finding the coziest jacket for ice-cold temperatures. As Christmas time floated away, I began to cherish the moments. I have also included a sample essay from this past application cycle to give you an example of what we consider a strong essay, and it is from “interesting or amusing story” prompt. There are just some minor things to tweak, but the essay is compelling and thought-provoking. Besides, this is the exciting part about writing the essay, you get to really let yourself shine. Speaking of Mike's essay title, be aware that titles can lend real impact to an essay if they are carefully thought out. After you have finished your essay's final revision and you're satisfied that it can't get much better, reread it one more time. Look for one or two key aspects that you may be able to work into a title. “If you take out diversity candidates and student athletes, the difference between legacy and non-legacy students gets really scary,” Fayal said. After you have written your essay, be sure to share it with friends, family, and teachers for feedback. Make sure you and someone who hasn't read the essay before give it a final read for spelling and grammar mistakes before you submit it. Even in such a badly broken system, however, there is one component that does not need to be fixed. I am talking about the dread personal essay, which is too easy to falsify, and mostly worthless even when it hasn’t been faked. Although they changed their major from RTF to Journalism after arriving on campus, they secured a recent, highly prestigious internship at the CBS Morning Show in Manhattan. They are also involved with Texas Student Television, so there’s no doubt UT extending this student an offer pays dividends for the university. With so many other things in your schedule, this process can initially seem like a waste of time. However, it will save you a lot of time in the long run. If you later realize that you misread the prompt, you might need to start the writing process from scratch. “There are 745 colleges with at least 1 application file on AdmitSee.com, and 286 colleges with 10+ application files on the site,” Fayal said. Learn about the best education and career options available in technology, life skills, and more. In the end, being a successful student means getting the career you not only want but also deserve. Admissions offices are honed to know if the essay is portraying a person in an authentic way. If it rings false, your chances of getting admitted have fallen. The passion in your writing comes through when its true to you. You could also add some of your personal experience in an anecdotal sense if you want. It might show some authority in the matter/ warrant more credibility as you have recently undergone the process. ” Some will see a “normal” structured college essay, and on the other side of the spectrum, a creative “outside-the-box-thinking” type essay that seems to be preferred. It’s a little vague who seems to prefer ” a creative “outside-the-box-thinking” type essay.” Also, not 100% sure, but it might be type of essay . I don’t think there’s anything wrong with “Also” but I read it as a last minute thought, rather than the introduction to your new point.

Uchicago Supplemental Essay Questions

Uchicago Supplemental Essay Questions And nobody wants to read about your losing team, either. Financial education curriculum by Washington State Employees Credit Union. This Student Workbook was developed to help students link responsible financial habits and future success. Create a rough outline, including approximately how long each paragraph needs to be in order to complete the essay within the word count limits. Creating a schedule, even if you need to modify it later, gets your brain in motion. Like the first item, this isn’t something that should take a lot of time. This is another step that can initially seem completely skippable, but organizing your writing can save you considerable stress and frustration. A good writing plan can streamline or even eliminate the need to do any significant rewrites. If you do not, someone else will and your dreams could be shattered. Please provide concrete examples on how and where you demonstrated abilities to lead a pack or have stood out in a crowd with exemplary performance. Universities love to showcase achievers in their promos and alumni newsletters as this is a way to attract more enrollments. Exhilaration filled my body with new year jitters and reminders that half a school year remained. Sadness marinated as winter break ended, and 3AM bedtimes became nonexistent. That winter I walked around in my big, warm wool sweater complemented by my glistening shaved head. The spirit and camaraderie of black college living is a lifestyle - the HBCU lifestyle! We're committed to keeping you connected to the black college living experience, bringing you the latest on everything, from scholarships and dorm living to Greek life and alumni giving. Treat your college essay as though you were preparing a resume for a well paying job. You must work on selling yourself even if you are not comfortable doing so. I walked through my home in fuzzy socks, hoping school would delay itself one more week! My Christmas presents no longer had much of my time, and I struggled finding the coziest jacket for ice-cold temperatures. As Christmas time floated away, I began to cherish the moments. I have also included a sample essay from this past application cycle to give you an example of what we consider a strong essay, and it is from “interesting or amusing story” prompt. There are just some minor things to tweak, but the essay is compelling and thought-provoking. Besides, this is the exciting part about writing the essay, you get to really let yourself shine. Speaking of Mike's essay title, be aware that titles can lend real impact to an essay if they are carefully thought out. After you have finished your essay's final revision and you're satisfied that it can't get much better, reread it one more time. Look for one or two key aspects that you may be able to work into a title. “If you take out diversity candidates and student athletes, the difference between legacy and non-legacy students gets really scary,” Fayal said. After you have written your essay, be sure to share it with friends, family, and teachers for feedback. Make sure you and someone who hasn't read the essay before give it a final read for spelling and grammar mistakes before you submit it. Even in such a badly broken system, however, there is one component that does not need to be fixed. I am talking about the dread personal essay, which is too easy to falsify, and mostly worthless even when it hasn’t been faked. Although they changed their major from RTF to Journalism after arriving on campus, they secured a recent, highly prestigious internship at the CBS Morning Show in Manhattan. They are also involved with Texas Student Television, so there’s no doubt UT extending this student an offer pays dividends for the university. With so many other things in your schedule, this process can initially seem like a waste of time. However, it will save you a lot of time in the long run. If you later realize that you misread the prompt, you might need to start the writing process from scratch. “There are 745 colleges with at least 1 application file on AdmitSee.com, and 286 colleges with 10+ application files on the site,” Fayal said. Learn about the best education and career options available in technology, life skills, and more. In the end, being a successful student means getting the career you not only want but also deserve. Admissions offices are honed to know if the essay is portraying a person in an authentic way. If it rings false, your chances of getting admitted have fallen. The passion in your writing comes through when its true to you. You could also add some of your personal experience in an anecdotal sense if you want. It might show some authority in the matter/ warrant more credibility as you have recently undergone the process. ” Some will see a “normal” structured college essay, and on the other side of the spectrum, a creative “outside-the-box-thinking” type essay that seems to be preferred. It’s a little vague who seems to prefer ” a creative “outside-the-box-thinking” type essay.” Also, not 100% sure, but it might be type of essay . I don’t think there’s anything wrong with “Also” but I read it as a last minute thought, rather than the introduction to your new point.

Writing The College Essay

Writing The College Essay School-based counselors have a lot of students to advise and are very busy, so seek guidance early and often. The personal statement is your opportunity to reveal something about yourself that can’t be found anywhere else in your application â€" use it! Find something else that reveals something new and that shows you put a lot of thought into your essay. If your study of AP biology conflicts with your religious views, write about that and how you reconciled the two. Writing the college essay takes time and effort, and you should feel accomplished. When you submit your essay, remember to include your name, contact information, and ID number if your college provided one, especially if you send it to a general admission email account. Admissions committees might forgive a typo, but they don’t like to hear that you wish you were going to school somewhere else. There aren’t too many things you can do to ensure rejection, but plagiarism, also known as cheating, is one of them. Impeccable grades and test scores alone are no longer enough to set students apart from the crowd. As social media and technology begin to change the landscape of higher education, admissions officers are looking for new ways to get to know potential students. There is still no better way to introduce yourself than through an admission essay. No matter how well you write your first draft, there's probably room for improvement. After your initial draft is complete, let it sit for at least a day. Unlike the rest of your application, which consists largely of objective facts like grades and test scores, your application essay allows you to truly showcase what makes you unique as a student and a person. Use your own voice and your own stories to illustrate why you would be an asset to the school. Don't fall into the trap of sanitizing your speech and your opinions for risk of offending an admissions officer. Although you do need to use proper spelling and grammar, your college essay is a perfect place for creative metaphors, witty turns of phrase and humor. Your college counselors are there to help, but they can’t if you don’t ask or wait until the last minute to seek guidance and feedback. If you use a thesaurus to find words rather than trust the words you know and use every day, you will not sound like yourself. What’s more, you might use a few big words incorrectly, which will never impress an admissions officer. Colleges are not looking for the next Ernest Hemingway or Toni Morrison. You will sound smart when you use your own words and your own voice to tell a genuine story that shows who you are. Get too much help.There is a fine line between asking someone you trust to review your essay and getting too much help. With some space between yourself and your initial writing, you'll be able to view your essay objectively and have better luck finding the flaws. After polishing it up, let it sit again and give it another coat of polish before showing it to your proofreaders. The best college admission essays go through several drafts before they're finished, so don't be afraid to rewrite your essay as many times as needed. Many students use this essay to expound upon activities or interests that are already heavily demonstrated in their application through courses, the activity list, and more. Instead of reinforcing a top activity or interest, instead, write about something that reveals another dimension of your life or personality. If your top activity is swimming, don’t write about the big championship meet. However, this format may vary depending on your university of choice or the course you intend to pursue, as will be explained below. Every year, the path to college is paved with more roadblocks. Increasing applications from the U.S. and abroad mean that universities across the country are rewarded with an even more elite pool of candidates. When your mom, dad, teacher or tutor starts giving you words to use or edits too much, your voice disappears. Now that you have decided on the story that you want to tell, the next logical step would be to write it. You need to create an outline that you will use when writing your essay. Most times, an outline should not be based on the college admission essay format which will be discussed below. Make a plan to meet with your college counselor and go over your college list and essays, and ask for feedback on your writing. Your college counselor can provide valuable insight into how to improve your college application essays, so seek feedback on your drafts as soon as possible.

11 Tips To Writing Your College Admissions Essay In One Day

11 Tips To Writing Your College Admissions Essay In One Day Having a planning step in the college essay process is essential because it gives you time to think and reflect upon your ideas at a more detailed level. I reach in and let my fingers trail around the surfaces of each object. I select my first prey arbitrarily, and as I raise my hand up to eye level, I closely examine this chosen one. Also, I know that procrastination and writing fatigue are real obstacles in this process. You guys aren’t essay robots able to churn out quality drafts on a strict schedule. Becky Leichtling is a member of College Coach’s team of college admissions experts. Becky is a graduate of the Stanford Graduate School of Education; prior to joining College Coach, Becky was a senior admissions officer at Tufts University. Visit our website to learn more about Becky Leichtling. Admission officers prioritize content over quantity. I never met an admission officer who literally counted the words in a college essay. After her tour of campus, Laura immediately knew she wanted to go to UMass Amherst, and was accepted as an economics major. It took me a few weeks to write my essay from start to finish, but to this day it’s still something I go back and read every once and awhile. We were told to figure out what had happened with no phones or textbooks, just our brains. We worked together to discover in the box was a siphon, similar to what is used to pump gas. I attended the SPK Program, a five-week enrichment program with New Jersey’s best and brightest students. I lived on a college campus with 200 students and studied a topic. On the first day of class, our teacher set a box on the table and poured water into the top, and nothing came out. Then, he poured more water in, and everything slowly came out. This timeline wasn’t meant to be followed exactly. But that doesn’t mean that setting goals and putting pressure on yourself early on isn’t going to help you get the ball rolling. Trust me, a little work now will go a long way towards boosting your confidence and overall preparedness throughout this process. We spent the next weeks building solar ovens, studying the dynamic of paper planes, diving into the content of the speed of light and space vacuums, among other things. We did this with no textbooks, flashcards, or information to memorize. This is a sample personal description, which you may be asked to write when it comes to fulfilling an application to university. Outliers in either direction were immediately noticed, thoughâ€"writing 250 words when the space accommodates 650, or submitting 2-3 pages when a single page was requestedâ€"can send a bad first impression. But the difference between 280 words and 315 words, or 512 words and 627 words, will go completely unnoticed. Admission officers do notice, however, the clarity of your thought and the effectiveness with which you convey your ideas. If your message was well-said in 250 words but the maximum was 300, so you added 50 words of fluff, those 50 words are diluting the strength of your message. A freshmaneconomics major, Laura Balinski decided to attend the University of Massachusetts Amherst because she loved the campus and community atmosphere when she toured as a high school student. Walking around campus, Laura enjoyed seeing other students and how friendly they were, and she also really liked the layout of campus. A miniature Flamenco dancer stares back at me from the confines of the 3-D rectangular magnet, half popping out as if willing herself to come to life. Instantly, my mind transports me back a few summers before, when I tapped my own heels to traditional music in Spain. I am reminded of my thirst to travel, to explore new cultures utterly different from my familiar home in Modesto, California. I have experienced study abroad in Spain, visited my father’s hometown in China five times, and traveled to many other places such as Paris. As a result, I have developed a restlessness inside me, a need to move on from four years in the same high school, to take advantage of diverse opportunities whenever possible, and to meet interesting people.

Admission Essay Writing Help, Ideas, Topics, Examples

Admission Essay Writing Help, Ideas, Topics, Examples As a humanities student, I know what it’s like to struggle with the daunting task of writing a 500-word essay. You don’t know where to start, your thesis is nonexistent, you’re dreading the inevitable late-night ahead, and you’re struggling just to turn thoughts into words. I feel that’s taking it to extremes, and it can have the opposite effect of making your writing look disjointed. I like to see at least three or four lines to a paragraph, and as an indication, my longest paragraph so far is just 74 words long. Whatever you’re discussing, you’ll discover a number of concepts which you presumably planned before you started writing. Why is everything word count these days instead of page count? When I was in school when I was younger, all assignments were page count. If you find it hard to stop yourself from constantly rereading, try to scroll down the page until most of your essay is covered. Then don’t let yourself scroll up until you’ve surpassed 500 words (but make sure you’ve read step number two first). You’re not J.K Rowling, so stop beating yourself up for it. But that’s okay -- the sooner you get over your terrible writing, the easier the rest of the essay will flow. “White space” is a wonderful illusion that tells your reader what you have to say is pretty easy to take in. I’ve seen some news articles in which each paragraph is only one sentence long. The number of pages you write depends on several factors. These elements include the average length of your words and whether your page is single- or double-spaced. But there are other aspects of your writing that you should consider when writing 1,000 words, such as font style, font size, and margins. I average 240 handwritten words per college ruled sheet. This would depend heavily on how big/small you write. it’s like different fonts take up different amount of space on a page, so does your specific handwriting. The best way to know your per page word count would be to look at past pages and count the number of words you write for each page. it’s time consuming, but any other estimate is bound not to be accurate since it’s so dependent on your handwriting. I have a writing assignment in school, and it is always helpful to know how many pages I will need. I think that since teachers don’t give page assignments but only word count assignments, it’s difficult to imagine how many pages that will be. Can someone explain to me why so many people are obsessed with word count and page count? If you’re a writer, shouldn’t writing well be the most important thing? Why do writers seem to obsess over word count and page count? To make it all hang together nicely, you add a bit of space when you transition from one area of discussion to another. As with any rule, there are exceptions, but broadly speaking, essay writing and academic writing calls for paragraphs in the word range. If you can’t organize your work into paragraphs consisting of related thoughts, you may be jumping around too much. You can assume commercial writing and news reports will have paragraphs approximately half as long as the ones you’d see in academic or essay writing. In this case, we’re looking at ten to twenty paragraphs per 1,000 words instead of five to ten.

How To Write A College Essay, With Examples

How To Write A College Essay, With Examples I was lost, I couldn’t see myself, so stuck on my mother that I fell into an ‘It will never get better’ mindset. On August 30th, 2018 my mom passed away unexpectedly. My favorite person, the one who helped me become the man I am today, ripped away from me, leaving a giant hole in my heart and in my life. I know what I want to do with my life, and I know how I’m going to get there. Learning how to wake up without my mom every morning became routine. I crack the seal on the bottle, leaning over to smell what I assume will be a tangy, fruity, delicious pomegranate solution. The insufferable stench fills my nostrils and crushes my confidence. Nothing felt right, a constant numbness to everything, and fog brain was my kryptonite. I paid attention in class, I did the work, but nothing stuck. I felt so stupid, I knew I was capable, I could solve a Rubik’s cube in 25 seconds and write poetry, but I felt broken. These are the moments I hold onto, the ones that define who I am, and who I want to be. For me, time isn’t just seconds ticking by on a clock, it’s how I measure what matters. ” The thought screams through my mind as I carry a sobbing girl on my back across campus in search of an ice pack and ankle wrap. She had just fallen while performing, and I could relate to the pain and fear in her eyes. The chaos of the show becomes distant, and I devote my time to bringing her relief, no matter how long it may take. I viewed visitors dragging their luggage, women carrying shopping bags, and people wandering in tattered clothes --the diversity of San Francisco. Two years ago I saw volunteers wearing City Impact shirts offering sandwiches and hot chocolate to homeless people outside of the cafe. I investigated more about City Impact and eventually signed up to volunteer. I find what I need to treat her injury in the sports medicine training room. I didn’t realize she would be the first of many patients I would tend to in this training room. Since then, I’ve launched a sports medicine program to provide care to the 500-person choir program. On the outside, I look like any smart phone, but when you open my settings and explore my abilities, you will find I have many unique features. After experiencing many twists and turns in my life, I’m finally at a good spot. At holiday outreach events, I prepared and delivered food to homeless people. While sharing my coffee, I listened to a story from an older Chinese man who told me, in Mandarin, how he had been abandoned by his children and felt lonely. Most importantly, my family has taught me an integral life lesson. As our Christmas Dinner squabbles suggest, seemingly insurmountable impasses can be resolved through respect and dialogue, even producing delicious results! This vocation may come in the form of political leadership that truly respects all perspectives and philosophies, or perhaps as diplomacy facilitating unity between the various nations of the world. I was six when I first refused/rejected girl’s clothing, eight when I only wore boy’s clothing, and fifteen when I realized why. When gifted dresses I was told to “smile and say thank you” while Spiderman shirts took no prompting from me, I’d throw my arms around the giver and thank them. My whole life has been others invading my gender with their questions, tears signed by my body, and a war against my closet. Fifteen years and I finally realized why, this was a girl’s body, and I am a boy. Finally, after an additional seventy-two hours, the time comes to try it. I'm momentarily taken aback, unable to understand how I went wrong when I followed the recipe perfectly. In my spot next to the window, I also witnessed different kinds of people. The most important factor in my transition was my mom’s support. She scheduled me an appointment with a gender therapist, let me donate my female clothes, and helped build a masculine wardrobe. With her help, I went on hormones five months after coming out and got surgery a year later. I finally found myself, and my mom fought for me, her love was endless. Even though I had friends, writing, and therapy, my strongest support was my mother.

Supplemental Application Essays

Supplemental Application Essays The duality of the periodic tableâ€"the cold, hard numbers mixed with the reassuring, steadfast patternsâ€"has manifested itself in every aspect of my life. The world of coding presented itself to me as a way to bring the patterns I loved into the world in a way I could see them. “These people are just confused,” Emily whispered to me as she stared out the car window at the gay couples walking down the rainbow streets of the Castro. I was utterly offended by her statement, but I replied calmly, “Let people be who they are.” Emily and I grew up in Texas together as inseparable friends. For twelve years that was our beautiful home, and we enjoyed every moment together. The rules for writing a good essay are no different. After you brainstorm, you’ll know what you want to say, but you must decide how you’re going to say it. Create an outline that breaks down the essay into sections. Your goal is to make sure that you get all the details of the story in place and that you are following the prompt of the university. Look at the lists you’ve already made and choose one or two topics and boil them down to the bare bones. Remember, you won’t have a lot of time to impress your readers so your story must cut to the chase pretty quickly. Think of it like you are creating a preview to a new movie. You want to draw the reader in with the first words you say and keep them there until they finish your paper. Get your creative juices flowing by brainstorming all the possible ideas you can think of to address your college essay question. Avoid sorting through your existing English class essays to see if the topics fit the bill. These pieces rarely showcase who you are as an applicant. College essay questions often suggest one or two main ideas or topics of focus. Don’t let your voice get lost in the pursuit to impress readers. Instead, write like you speak â€" keeping in mind that proper grammar and spelling is still important. he ending hook should deliver a strong message that will remain with the reader even after he or she has finished their essay. This is the point where you will create the opening sentences in your essay. These will be the words that will draw your reader into the story. Let your essay sit for a while before you proofread it. Approaching the essay with a fresh perspective gives your mind a chance to focus on the actual words rather than seeing what you think you wrote. All good stories have a beginning, a middle, and an end, so shape your story so that it has an introduction, body, and conclusion. Following this natural progression will make your essay coherent and easy to read. Your academic resume, which should include your GPA, completed coursework, and SAT/ACT scores. You should also include some evidence that you are ready for college, a record of your extracurricular activities, work experience, and recommendations. Most universities are looking for two different packages when you submit your college application. This forces you to read each word individually and increases your chances of finding a typo. Reading aloud will also help you ensure your punctuation is correct, and it’s often easier to hear awkward sentences than see them. Don’t rely solely on the computer spelling and grammar check. Computers can't detect the context in which you're using words, so be sure to review carefully. They might be fine in a text message, but not in your college essay. These can vary from personal to trivial, but all seek to challenge you and spark your creativity and insight. The single most important part of your essay preparation may be simply making sure you truly understand the question or essay prompt. When you're finished writing, you need to make sure that your essay still adheres to the prompt. Take time to understand the question or prompt being asked. Your list will serve as your outline, and the expanded story you create will become the first draft. It won’t be perfect but all of the elements are already in place. Next you will compile a list of your personal life experiences. If you do an online search of any university application requirements, this is pretty much the blanket list they will give you. But these are only surface materials that anyone can give. What they are really looking for is the underlying truths they will find in these documents.

Application Essays

Application Essays We do not make empty promises because your success is our main goal. If you decide to buy admission essay from us, you are guaranteed to get tons of benefits, one of our experienced writers and qualified support. Reach out to us via our website - and we provide custom writing services time-efficiently, and the number of our satisfied customers is constantly growing. Working remotely, using desktop sharing and video calls, provides us the flexibility to be available when our students need us. Each of our member schools works to make college affordable and ensures students graduate on time. Using MyCoalition, students can begin exploring colleges and compiling personal and school-related achievements as early as ninth grade. So my kid is going to write this essay in the next few months. Remember when the student went to the front of the class with something of interest inside the plastic sack? With essays, you need to draw the reader out beyond the straight text and use words that trigger imagery and the senses. And even Joan Didion herself wouldn’t get into college on her writing skills if she had lackluster grades or scores. That being said, do not call our office in a panic if you discovered a missing article or a misused “its” after you hit submit. Because of our holistic selection process, no student will be denied based on one element of his or her application; this includes typos. Don’t try to guess what the reader wants to hear. If you ask a hundred different admissions counselors what their favorite kind of essay is, you will likely get a hundred different answers. Instead of trying to game the system, focus on the things that get you excited. We have vast experience in admission essay writing. Our experts deliver strictly by the deadlines, follow your instructions and provide high-quality content. I've been politely asked not to help, which makes me want to strangle him and hug him at the same time. I hope he gets across some of the real things about himself. He likes math, but not as much as he likes his friends. The best thing here would be to show your interest. Don't try to impress everyone with your fascinating personality in your college admission essay - it might look like you are pretending to be more promising than you really are. So, don't share your information with every reader, especially, when it's too personal. The common application personal statement is a 650-word essay that you will submit to all US colleges to which you apply. If you recall show and tell at school, your essay should follow the same principle. He likes history, but not as much as he likes Chipotle. That's the kid who's going to show up at college, ready to figure the rest out. These FAQs about the college application essay should help you tell your story with an end goal of making a good impression on a college admissions officer. How to Write the Best College Admissions EssayThe college admissions essay is perhaps the most dreaded part of the college application process. College admissions officers read through literally thousands of essays each admissions round. of students who completed applications with Ivy Coach earned admission to their first college choice. There’s a piece up on “Inside Higher Ed” today that focuses on assistance on college admissions essays. Since you may use one essay for multiple schools, proofreading also ensures that you don’t mix up college’s names in your essay! It has actually happened that a student applying to college sends “University X” an essay saying how much they want to go to “University Y” â€" oops! Editing â€" at least twice â€" will help you avoid embarrassing mistakes like these in your college admission essay. Beyond gaining insight into your personal psyche, the purpose of the essay is also to showcase your written communication skills. Treat this essay just like any class assignment â€" write it early, proof and revise, keep an eagle eye out for spelling and grammatical errors, and make sure it is presented in a clean and polished way.

How To Write A Us College Admissions Essay

How To Write A Us College Admissions Essay It is apparently more complex and, subsequently, requires more time. Rare students manage to survive freshmen year without help with essay writing by someone experienced from the sidelines. The tricky part is that not always peers and relatives have the necessary expertise. That's when you can think back about guys who supported you during the admissions process. Of course you can find samples of admissions essays our but online aware that if you can find them, so can everyone else. Others write about a subject that they don't care about, but that they think will impress admissions officers. The thing is, college writing differs drastically from what you've been doing in school. And the admissions admission will soon get sick of reading the same idea over and over again. You need to for outside of the box and grab their attention in a new way. Especially admission how short these essays usually our and that the general rule of thumb is to stick to just writing point to admission on. Buying an admissions essay from a top writer ensures your essay will be snappy and legit. They sell a student without sounding egotistical essays they express do resume writing services help interest in essay chosen institution without sound like a know it all or an ass kisser. A completed great admissions essay does everything outlined above. Advanced Placement can help students discover and pursue a passion, but not if too many courses suffocate their time. Some students cram their schedules with AP courses to burnish their applications. While data show that taking up to five AP classes over the course of high school helps students succeed in college, there is no evidence that more than that is better. Admissions officers have to read an unbelievable number of college essays, most of which are forgettable. Many students try to sound smart rather than sounding like themselves. Make the admission board feel services though passing you by would be the biggest mistake of their lives. Buy admission essay service by Academized is rated 4. Some colleges have a team of people read each file. Others divide them up, and then only share files that require further discussion. There is not one way that all colleges work, so I always tell students to assume everyone in the admissions office could their essays so that they cannot write anything that anyone and everyone cannot read. Also I believe that students should believe that the more people who read an essay the better as these essays should really captivate and engage readers and help them see why you belong on their campus. We therefore recently announced that taking more than five AP courses should provide no advantage in admissions. Students can take more AP if they want, but not to get into college. College will catch the admission board attention for the right reasons. It will services professionally edited and proofread and it will flow perfectly. The best admissions essays answer the admission essay question fully without rambling and in sale with the guidelines. There is no way to determine a typical scenario regarding a college’s method for reviewing applications. In all cases at least one admissions officer will look at your essay. If a school uses an admissions committee the number could jump to three or more. In any case, what YOU can control is how well your essay describes who you are and gives the admissions person a chance to see things in you that will be an asset to the school. College admissions officers are very busy and only want to read essays that help them make admissions decisions.

Tips For Great College Admission Essay Writing

Tips For Great College Admission Essay Writing The admissions officers will only spend a brief amount of time reviewing your essay, so you need to start with a vivid paragraph that will keep them engaged. The introduction has to reveal to the reader what your essay is about and catch their attention. Some campuses have a pool of reviewers, while others are more specific. For a small college, there is a chance that you essay will only be read by a couple of individuals, but for a larger school it can make its way through several hands before being put down. While essays don’t weigh as much as grades or course selection, if you are applying test-optional or to a smaller school, more attention will be given to this section of the application. They are not general or abstract, the more details the better. The best essays are 20% about the “topic” (the “what”) and 80% about the writer. You could open with an anecdote or an interesting story that will show some of the best parts of your personality and character, offering an insight that will help the admission officers get to know who you are. A college application essay is usually around 500 words, and those words can mean the difference between acceptance and rejection. You will spend many days researching and crafting your essay, but admissions officers will only have a few minutes to actually read it, so you need to get their attention. You’ve completed all the application forms, taken all the tests, and now it’s finally time to impress your university’s admission officers with a great college application essay. College admissions essays require a tremendous amount of work. Still, don’t waste the opportunity to put another dimension on your application file. Usually one to two admissions officers read an essay. Some colleges will choose only to look at your GPA, Course Rigor and SAT/ACT scores. If you GPA and Test Scores are high enough, they may not feel that and essay is necessary. The role of the essay varies greatly from school to school. Online instruction like the Time4Writing essay writing coursesfor elementary, middle and high school students can help children prepare for state and college-entrance standardized writing tests. These interactive writing classes build basic writing skills, explain essay types and structure, and teach students how to organize their ideas. A college application essay is basically a glimpse into how your mind works and how you view the world. If you want your essay to be credible, you need to make sure everything you write supports that viewpoint. Spend some time figuring out how the essay question relates to your personal qualities and then write from a specific angle. While you research your application essay, you will be encouraged to check out some examples of great essays and get inspired. While this is a great exercise, many students allow themselves to be influenced too much by the examples, and use lots of clichés in their desire to impress the admission officers. Work with your students to help them with this important piece of their application. Whether you’re prepared or not, there comes a time when every student is faced with writing their first college essay. Even if you’re a natural writer, writing a college essay is still a daunting task. Here’s a method for tackling the process and a few examples to inspire you. How much weight a college puts on that portion of the application may differ. Just how many readers digest your words can vary as well. At almost all selective colleges however, every college essay will be read by multiple people. If a student is on the fence, not an early admit or deny, essays will probably be read multiple times by multiple people while an applicant is being discussed. You can be certain that you did not spend all that time crafting the perfect essay in vain. A lot of it depends upon the selectivity of the school. It is always worth an applicant’s while to write as strong an essay as possible, but its role in the process is a variable one. Your students’ college essay is their opportunity to reveal their best qualities and to show an admission committee what makes them stand out from other applicants.

How To Write A 5 Paragraph Essay

How To Write A 5 Paragraph Essay If your essay is filled with lies and exaggerations, then you’ve missed the point entirely. It’s possible that college admissions officers may suspect you’re lying, which is a poor reflection on your ethics and morals. Even if they don’t suspect you’re lying, you’ve missed your chance to showcase the real reasons that you’re a good fit for this school. Often, students feel pressure to write about a completely unique, never-before-seen essay topic that will help them stand out. When these students can’t think of anything “cool” or “special” enough, they make something up. To a degree, this mystery person holds your future in their hands, and you don’t want to risk offending them. To avoid writing your essay on a topic that might earn you a rejection letter, check out the five topics you should never write about in your college essay below. I think the five paragraphs for an essay is more of a rule-of-thumb number that is easy to teach students when they are first learning to write. Your teacher was just trying to make sure you understood how to write, not give you a rule you had to always obey. It is also well written and grammatically correct. If you want to be guaranteed to enter into college you must take care of all stages of admission including the essay. When you ordering an essay paper for admission you get more time to prepare for an exams. You no longer have to worry about what type of essay college will require from you. You may have been advised to take risks with your college application essays, but you don’t want to be too risky. If you do write about someone who influenced your life, make sure that you only briefly describe them. Spend most of the essay focusing on yourself and how your personality or choices have been shaped because of this person. Still, it’s best to avoid especially polarizing topics such as religion, abortion, and other hot-button debates. You don’t know who will read your college application essay or what they believe. Writing about hiking the Appalachian Trail or obsessively reading “To Kill A Mocking Bird” is noble but not memorable. Simply recanting facts will not distinguish you from other candidates with equal class rank, grades and test scores. Making your scholarly endeavors personal will pique curiosity and demonstrate your potential to contribute to an academic community. admissions counselor only has a few min to read your essay and his or her attention is the key here. Tell the reader something about yourself that might not be included in the rest of the application. A great college essay is one in which the student’s voice and though process comes through clearly. It should be consistent with the rest of the application and showcase an aspect of the student not highlighted in the rest of the application. EssayJack is an interactive web platform with a patented solution that pre-structures student essays, reduces writing anxiety, and allows educator customization and feedback. Narrative essays also require a clear structure introduction, body and conclusion populated with concise language. Most of the essays you will ever have to write in your life will fall loosely under these four categories. Focus on ways you have internalized and personalized academic research and demonstrate how this will enhance the university’s academic community. Asking someone who is slightly more removed from the application process may be the wisest route to go. While parents mean well, any constructive feedback may be misinterpreted, creating conflict at what can already be a stressful time. Teachers, guidance counselors, even friends are viable candidates when looking for a second opinion on your writing. Admissions officers want to get to know applicants. There’s only so much that application readers can deduce from your extracurricular activities, transcripts, test scores, recommendation letters, and other application materials. Many times the best way to get a clear picture of a student’s goals, accomplishments, and character is to hear it directly from the student him or herself. In fact, it’s important to write in your authentic voice and avoid using “fancy” vocabulary just to impress admissions officers. Remember that the purpose of a college admissions essay is to help admissions officers get to know you. most college essay are very much the same so if you can make your essay stand out, you must delivery a great college essay that the counselor will remember and share with other counselors. a great college essay must use personal experiences to delivery a big message focused on passion of learning, motivation for excellences, and personal value in contributing to community as a whole. A great college essay is an essay that is interesting, pithy and well written. You want both to keep the reader’s attention and to make the reader want you to be a member of the next freshman class at the reader’s college. This is your chance to make your application stand out and your one opportunity to have a real voice appear in the file.

Writing Tips

Writing Tips For the same reason that architects don’t decide that a house is ready to be built after only one sketch. On subsequent viewings, revisions that you missed the first time around will appear. The writing of admission essays is not a hard task. However, as many students find that they lack the proper writing skills, they often decide to obtain writing assistance from essay writing companies. Your essay is a unique reflection of who you are as a person. Even if your parent or friend is a gifted writer who would be happy to help you write your essay, do not let them write your essay. Your own words are the best way to convey who you are as a student and a person; using someone else's words won't give your essay an authentic voice. Parents and teachers are good candidates for this task, but you can also make use of a college consultant for an experienced proofreader with specialized knowledge of the admissions process. Your college essay should reflect your authentic speaking voice, but that doesn't mean that you can write it like a lengthy text message. There's simply no excuse for any major grammatical or spelling errors on your essay. After you've completed your essay, go over it with a fine-toothed comb to look for any technical errors. A second pair of eyes can be essential; sometimes, writers are blind to their own mistakes. While you are writing the first draft, you are almost still in the process of brainstorming, at least on the level of the word or phrase if not the general ideas or concepts. When you revisit the work, you will see what you have written and often easily determine what needs to be revised, deleted, or rewritten altogether. Medical experts from our team know medical terms and nuances to follow for admission writing. If you order medical school admission essay, it is a medical expert who will write an admission essay. While the personal essay has to be personal, a reader can learn a lot about you from whatever you choose to focus on and how you describe it. Why is it important to write a second or third draft of your personal essay? We cannot miss college admissions - it is part of services we offer. You can easily order a college admission from us and choose a writer who will write an essay for you. Our personal statement writer service has experience writing MBA admission essays; we know all main requirements, rules of a winning essay. Some of our specialized programs will have additional essays to complete, but the Penn essay should address the single-degree or single-school choice. We understand that you may be writing essays for different schools and you may want to reuse material, but read through your essay to make sure the content is relevant to the essay prompt. Speaking of narrative structure, when you include the basic plot elements of setting, introduction, conflict, and resolution, not only will your essay be more fun to read, it will be easier to write. And when writing is easier, you are usually having more fun and pouring more of yourself into your writing. The gates of academia will open much easier with a strong college or university admissions essay. Since 1996, our goal has been helping students achieve their dreams. Our editors help students craft and edit written work for undergraduate, post-graduate, medical school, law school and business school. Writing isn't something that comes easy to every student-no matter how smart or driven. We work with students to help them convey in words what they are hoping to communicate to the admissions officers. Bridging this gap is often one of the greatest challenges in the college admissions process. Additionally, if you're caught letting someone else write your essay, you may be automatically disqualified from admission. That's exactly the kind of college application help you don't need. Having a few extra pairs of eyes to read your essay is one of the best forms of college admission essay help. Ask your proofreaders to specifically look for grammar and spelling errors. Your assistants can also make suggestions on the content, such as identifying areas that need more detail or pointing out where you've written too much. Luckily, this process is usually more fun because you can already see what you have accomplished and are now simply “reworking the clay” into a more sophisticated and precise shape. If you choose to write this kind of story about overcoming failure or a profound difficulty (financial, emotional, physical, etc.), don’t forget to focus significantly on the “lesson” part.

Writing Tips

Writing Tips For the same reason that architects don’t decide that a house is ready to be built after only one sketch. On subsequent viewings, revisions that you missed the first time around will appear. The writing of admission essays is not a hard task. However, as many students find that they lack the proper writing skills, they often decide to obtain writing assistance from essay writing companies. Your essay is a unique reflection of who you are as a person. Even if your parent or friend is a gifted writer who would be happy to help you write your essay, do not let them write your essay. Your own words are the best way to convey who you are as a student and a person; using someone else's words won't give your essay an authentic voice. Parents and teachers are good candidates for this task, but you can also make use of a college consultant for an experienced proofreader with specialized knowledge of the admissions process. Your college essay should reflect your authentic speaking voice, but that doesn't mean that you can write it like a lengthy text message. There's simply no excuse for any major grammatical or spelling errors on your essay. After you've completed your essay, go over it with a fine-toothed comb to look for any technical errors. A second pair of eyes can be essential; sometimes, writers are blind to their own mistakes. While you are writing the first draft, you are almost still in the process of brainstorming, at least on the level of the word or phrase if not the general ideas or concepts. When you revisit the work, you will see what you have written and often easily determine what needs to be revised, deleted, or rewritten altogether. Medical experts from our team know medical terms and nuances to follow for admission writing. If you order medical school admission essay, it is a medical expert who will write an admission essay. While the personal essay has to be personal, a reader can learn a lot about you from whatever you choose to focus on and how you describe it. Why is it important to write a second or third draft of your personal essay? We cannot miss college admissions - it is part of services we offer. You can easily order a college admission from us and choose a writer who will write an essay for you. Our personal statement writer service has experience writing MBA admission essays; we know all main requirements, rules of a winning essay. Some of our specialized programs will have additional essays to complete, but the Penn essay should address the single-degree or single-school choice. We understand that you may be writing essays for different schools and you may want to reuse material, but read through your essay to make sure the content is relevant to the essay prompt. Speaking of narrative structure, when you include the basic plot elements of setting, introduction, conflict, and resolution, not only will your essay be more fun to read, it will be easier to write. And when writing is easier, you are usually having more fun and pouring more of yourself into your writing. The gates of academia will open much easier with a strong college or university admissions essay. Since 1996, our goal has been helping students achieve their dreams. Our editors help students craft and edit written work for undergraduate, post-graduate, medical school, law school and business school. Writing isn't something that comes easy to every student-no matter how smart or driven. We work with students to help them convey in words what they are hoping to communicate to the admissions officers. Bridging this gap is often one of the greatest challenges in the college admissions process. Additionally, if you're caught letting someone else write your essay, you may be automatically disqualified from admission. That's exactly the kind of college application help you don't need. Having a few extra pairs of eyes to read your essay is one of the best forms of college admission essay help. Ask your proofreaders to specifically look for grammar and spelling errors. Your assistants can also make suggestions on the content, such as identifying areas that need more detail or pointing out where you've written too much. Luckily, this process is usually more fun because you can already see what you have accomplished and are now simply “reworking the clay” into a more sophisticated and precise shape. If you choose to write this kind of story about overcoming failure or a profound difficulty (financial, emotional, physical, etc.), don’t forget to focus significantly on the “lesson” part.

Application Essay Questions

Application Essay Questions There is never going to be a “right time” or “right place.” So instead, I’m encouraging you to write also. Pick up a pen and piece of paper and write them a letter. Tell them you are proud of them and concerned because they have worked hard and deserve to put their best foot forward, i.e. you want them to succeed. Let them know you are there to help, but know you won’t be next year when they’re at school. And then have a glass of wine, go for a walk, i.e. let it go. Now, I understand you can read this one of two ways. My daughter/son just needs to be specific and basically not write a bad essay. Maybe I’m being influenced by what I thought was a riveting World Series, but my answer is to throw an off speed pitch. The truth is that there is never a good time to have this conversation. If you bring it up again, things are going to go south quick. At home, I stayed up late with a little light under my sheets trying to finish the last chapter of The Prisoner of Azkaban . I lived my life through books, some were void of meaning, just a way to pass the time, while others crept up on my subconscious and wove their way into my life, forever intertwined with me. The most special books are the ones that like a kaleidoscope give a new view upon another reading. One of these books is Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. Deciding which college you want to attend is stressful. Preparing your college applications and meeting various deadlines is an ordeal. Worrying about the essay questions you'll be asked -- and how many you'll have to answer -- is agonizing. To help you begin YOUR essays, we have developed this guide specifically for writing a compelling Personal Statement. Dig in on these five key steps for essay writing so you can master everything from choosing the right topic to providing polish in your final round of revisions. There’s no such thing as the perfect college essay. Finally, submit your college essay, along with any other application materials, well before the submission deadline. This shows colleges that you're serious about developing your future potential with their institution. When you construct an essay that satisfies you, ask a trusted teacher to proofread and critique it. Make any changes required, and type the essay into a word processor or text editor so that you can copy and paste it onto the electronic college application. This will help prevent errors and typos that might occur if you retype the essay into the essay window when you're filling out the application form. Just be yourself and write the best way you know how. The essay is one of the few things that you’ve got complete control over in the application process, especially by the time you’re in your senior year. There is not necessarily a correct structure, but there are techniques that promote consistency and cohesiveness. The outlining process involves envisioning your story and then framing its structure. Rather than spend lots of time in your head imagining how your story will unfold, do a furious free-write where nothing is censored. Whether it is similar to baking a special cheesecake , or something completely different, write down everything you can remember about the experience from start to finish. Don’t worry if you think something is not important just keep writing. Outlining your story is often helpful to writing a successful essay. Having a strong outline ensures a writer creates a central narrative that acts as a beacon to follow throughout the drafting and editing process.

Application Essay Questions

Application Essay Questions There is never going to be a “right time” or “right place.” So instead, I’m encouraging you to write also. Pick up a pen and piece of paper and write them a letter. Tell them you are proud of them and concerned because they have worked hard and deserve to put their best foot forward, i.e. you want them to succeed. Let them know you are there to help, but know you won’t be next year when they’re at school. And then have a glass of wine, go for a walk, i.e. let it go. Now, I understand you can read this one of two ways. My daughter/son just needs to be specific and basically not write a bad essay. Maybe I’m being influenced by what I thought was a riveting World Series, but my answer is to throw an off speed pitch. The truth is that there is never a good time to have this conversation. If you bring it up again, things are going to go south quick. At home, I stayed up late with a little light under my sheets trying to finish the last chapter of The Prisoner of Azkaban . I lived my life through books, some were void of meaning, just a way to pass the time, while others crept up on my subconscious and wove their way into my life, forever intertwined with me. The most special books are the ones that like a kaleidoscope give a new view upon another reading. One of these books is Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. Deciding which college you want to attend is stressful. Preparing your college applications and meeting various deadlines is an ordeal. Worrying about the essay questions you'll be asked -- and how many you'll have to answer -- is agonizing. To help you begin YOUR essays, we have developed this guide specifically for writing a compelling Personal Statement. Dig in on these five key steps for essay writing so you can master everything from choosing the right topic to providing polish in your final round of revisions. There’s no such thing as the perfect college essay. Finally, submit your college essay, along with any other application materials, well before the submission deadline. This shows colleges that you're serious about developing your future potential with their institution. When you construct an essay that satisfies you, ask a trusted teacher to proofread and critique it. Make any changes required, and type the essay into a word processor or text editor so that you can copy and paste it onto the electronic college application. This will help prevent errors and typos that might occur if you retype the essay into the essay window when you're filling out the application form. Just be yourself and write the best way you know how. The essay is one of the few things that you’ve got complete control over in the application process, especially by the time you’re in your senior year. There is not necessarily a correct structure, but there are techniques that promote consistency and cohesiveness. The outlining process involves envisioning your story and then framing its structure. Rather than spend lots of time in your head imagining how your story will unfold, do a furious free-write where nothing is censored. Whether it is similar to baking a special cheesecake , or something completely different, write down everything you can remember about the experience from start to finish. Don’t worry if you think something is not important just keep writing. Outlining your story is often helpful to writing a successful essay. Having a strong outline ensures a writer creates a central narrative that acts as a beacon to follow throughout the drafting and editing process.

Best College Application Essay Prompts

Best College Application Essay Prompts In an essay, the introduction, which can be one or two paragraphs, introduces the topic. No matter what type of writing you're doing, a strong introduction is one way to get your audience to keep reading. After you've captured their attention, get moretips to engage the readerin the rest of your piece. An engaged reader means your writing is effective and powerful. Be aware, however, that different genres have their own special expectations about beginnings and endings. Some academic genres may not even require an introduction or conclusion. An annotated bibliography, for example, typically provides neither. Your essay should need to respond to an argument or a question. You can even present your individual opinion or view. In a short length or limited words essay, the ideas are predicted shallowly as the essay length is limited. Short essays have a specific structure to be followed. 1 paragraph Introduction, 3 paragraphs body, and 1 paragraph conclusion. You need to be very Precise when you write a short essay. So, you need to understand the topic really well. A short essay should be a minimum of half-page & maximum of 1 page if we work single-spaced. Make your reader experience the world of your story by adding vivid sensory details.Using imagerythat involves the senses lets your reader feel like he or she is in the story. When you write a blog post, you need to engage your reader right away with a creative introduction. In the world of online reading, it's easy to navigate away to something else. The introduction is your chance to keep your reader on your blog. So, an essay is a piece of writing which highlights the author’s own argument. Essays are mainly classified as formal or informal and are generally used as a silent weapon to express thoughts on various themes and topics. You might be facing difficulties in writing a 200 word essay or a 500 word essay, but don’t worry as I am here to help you. You can also visit allassignmenthelp.com to get quick online essay help. It does the same job for an essay as the topic sentence does for a paragraph. In a paragraph, the topic sentence tells the reader what the subject of the paragraph will be and how it will be developed. It can go up to max 2 pages if we work double-spaced. Short essays should consist of a maximum of 400 words. You can go up to 500 but, if only it’s the need for the topic. Your ideas should be very clear from the beginning itself. So, your topic should be, “Discuss Hamlet as a tragedy”. Such a topic will help you to write a short essay easily. The intro should be very catchy as it will attract the readers and then they can easily get your point. A thesis statement should be placed in the introductory paragraph of your essay. The major feature of a short essay is that you have to limit down the words of your arguments and ideas. You can start with a good statistic and hint at more information to come. People will read on because they want to know the rest of the story. Reportsaren't always the most fascinating kind of writing to read, so a really great introduction can make a huge difference in your reader engagement. You need to be clear about what you're discussing and offer any background information your reader might need. Most of the advice in this handout pertains to argumentative or exploratory academic essays. For instance, “Tragedy in Shakespeare’s plays” this topic is too vast. Here you have to research on different plays of Shakespeare to bring out the tragic elements. Discussing all the tragedies of Shakespeare would make your essay a long one. Therefore, you can focus on a single tragedy by him.

Best College Application Essay Prompts

Best College Application Essay Prompts In an essay, the introduction, which can be one or two paragraphs, introduces the topic. No matter what type of writing you're doing, a strong introduction is one way to get your audience to keep reading. After you've captured their attention, get moretips to engage the readerin the rest of your piece. An engaged reader means your writing is effective and powerful. Be aware, however, that different genres have their own special expectations about beginnings and endings. Some academic genres may not even require an introduction or conclusion. An annotated bibliography, for example, typically provides neither. Your essay should need to respond to an argument or a question. You can even present your individual opinion or view. In a short length or limited words essay, the ideas are predicted shallowly as the essay length is limited. Short essays have a specific structure to be followed. 1 paragraph Introduction, 3 paragraphs body, and 1 paragraph conclusion. You need to be very Precise when you write a short essay. So, you need to understand the topic really well. A short essay should be a minimum of half-page & maximum of 1 page if we work single-spaced. Make your reader experience the world of your story by adding vivid sensory details.Using imagerythat involves the senses lets your reader feel like he or she is in the story. When you write a blog post, you need to engage your reader right away with a creative introduction. In the world of online reading, it's easy to navigate away to something else. The introduction is your chance to keep your reader on your blog. So, an essay is a piece of writing which highlights the author’s own argument. Essays are mainly classified as formal or informal and are generally used as a silent weapon to express thoughts on various themes and topics. You might be facing difficulties in writing a 200 word essay or a 500 word essay, but don’t worry as I am here to help you. You can also visit allassignmenthelp.com to get quick online essay help. It does the same job for an essay as the topic sentence does for a paragraph. In a paragraph, the topic sentence tells the reader what the subject of the paragraph will be and how it will be developed. It can go up to max 2 pages if we work double-spaced. Short essays should consist of a maximum of 400 words. You can go up to 500 but, if only it’s the need for the topic. Your ideas should be very clear from the beginning itself. So, your topic should be, “Discuss Hamlet as a tragedy”. Such a topic will help you to write a short essay easily. The intro should be very catchy as it will attract the readers and then they can easily get your point. A thesis statement should be placed in the introductory paragraph of your essay. The major feature of a short essay is that you have to limit down the words of your arguments and ideas. You can start with a good statistic and hint at more information to come. People will read on because they want to know the rest of the story. Reportsaren't always the most fascinating kind of writing to read, so a really great introduction can make a huge difference in your reader engagement. You need to be clear about what you're discussing and offer any background information your reader might need. Most of the advice in this handout pertains to argumentative or exploratory academic essays. For instance, “Tragedy in Shakespeare’s plays” this topic is too vast. Here you have to research on different plays of Shakespeare to bring out the tragic elements. Discussing all the tragedies of Shakespeare would make your essay a long one. Therefore, you can focus on a single tragedy by him.

How To Write Your College Admission Essay

How To Write Your College Admission Essay It is apparently more complex and, subsequently, requires more time. Rare students manage to survive freshmen year without help with essay writing by someone experienced from the sidelines. The tricky part is that not always peers and relatives have the necessary expertise. Very rarely is a first draft of an essay or a book or a play the finished product. Good writing is all about starting over, revising, reordering, peppering in new details, starting over yet again, and more. Often times, there are multiple rounds of production company, studio, and network notes. While it drives TV writers mad (and sometimes the notes are not good!), there’s a reason this process exists â€" because in most instances it pulls out the best writing from these artists. So how does AdmitSee gain access to these application essays? The site invites college students, who are identified and verified by their official school IDs, to upload their application materials. Once uploaded, their application materials can then be accessed by high school students who are preparing for the college application process. One way to understand what colleges are looking for when they ask you to write an essay is to check out the essays of students who already got inâ€"college essays that actually worked. After all, they must be among the most successful of this weird literary genre. I won’t help with the writingâ€"not my jobâ€"but I’m an expert with feedback and redirection. I know when it’s boring, or the writer is emotionally detached from the material. This is your chance to show off your personality and prove yourself to be an indispensable asset to the college or university. Let's work together to craft a winning, successful application essay that takes a weight off of your shoulders! Start your search for the perfect admissions essay editor today! The personal statement might just be the hardest part of your college application. Mostly this is because it has the least guidance and is the most open-ended. Students don’t knock out outstanding college admissions essays on the first pass. This prompt allows you to show the admissions committee personal qualities that may not be conveyed by your traditional application materials. In addition to academic excellence, the Rice/Baylor Scholars program looks for students who are compassionate and socially conscious. The best essays will use their passions to highlight these personal qualities. That's when you can think back about guys who supported you during the admissions process. It’s December, the height of college application season, and students across Massachusetts are hunched over their desks, putting the finishing touches on their college application essay. Or at least that was the case when students were still writing their own essays, which, increasingly, they aren’t. It is incredibly easy for an admissions offer to see if a student is answering the prompt truthfully or simply writing what the student thinks the admissions officer wants to hear. Every time a high school student views a college student's application materials, that college student is paid a stipend by AdmitSee. What's so wonderful about your admissions essay is that it's the one stage of the application process where you're in complete control. The first step to prepare a polished college essay beings with formulating a thesis statement and outline to follow. College admission boards use the admission essay to determine who a prospective student is, what a prospect can offer their school, and a prospect's ability to flourish in academic and extracurricular settings. Brainstorming ideas, strategizing a plan, and asking people who know you well to describe you is often a great starting point to determine the thesis statement. This is the one true opportunity to paint a picture of who the student really is and what kind of person they might be on campus if accepted to the university. The phrase, “honesty is the best policy,” is as trite an expression as there is in the English language but it does apply throughout the college application process and certainly in the essay. For admissions officers that read sometimes thousands of essays on the same prompt, it is easy to see which essays contain feeling and effort and which lack any amount of authenticity. The prompt should be addressed in a way that relates to the student and illustrates a fresh angle and approach to the question being posed. Relatability to one’s own life, challenges or triumphs help the admissions officer take a trip into the mind of the writer. As the members of the class of 2018 begin their applications, writing the main essay will undoubtedly be one of the most daunting tasks associated with the process. If you’re seeking assistance on college admissions essays, know that good writing is about rewriting.

Myths of UGA Admissions - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

Myths of UGA Admissions - UGA Undergraduate Admissions Myths of UGA Admissions Every year, UGAs Admissions Office works with a large number of prospective students (about 60,000 and growing for 2012), sending them materials, emailing them information, inviting them to campus events, and alerting them about our travel. A majority of these students come to our attention due to an action by the student (SAT/ACT scores sent to UGA, email our office, see us at College Fairs/School Visits, etc.), and we try to give both the student and the family the best information about UGA as possible. Last week, we received an email from the parent of one of these prospective students in response to an email announcing that we would be at a college fair in their area. My daughter received this email message from you today via email. We both laughed and laughed when we read it. To be honest with you, (XXXX) kids from where we live in (Atlanta Suburb) County with 3.7x or higher grade point averages and above average SAT and ACT scores, as a general rule don’t get into UGA for Freshman admission. If we are admitted at all, we are admitted in the summer, have to go to (XXXXX) State for a semester or get turned down outright or get delayed decision. Frankly, we really do not not have any intention of even applying to the University of Georgia. She can be easily be admitted to any of the leading universities in the USA (UNC, USC, Auburn, Alabama, Georgia Tech, Michigan, Arizona, UCLA to name a few ) we thought it best to look beyond the University of Georgia! Our perception of your admissions process is that you accept freshman from other parts of Georgia, other states, other countries and other races and religions so that you will be able to tout impressive diversity numbers, but how many of those admitted with lesser credentials than my daughter actually stay for 4 years? We are not going to waste the time or money completing an application to the University of Georgia. I have removed the personal information about this student so as not to target any individual, and I am not writing this post out of anger or to make fun of this family. Rather, I am writing about this to show that even though my office tries its best to give you an insight into our admission process, and we dispel the myths and urban legends about UGA Admissions, they still persist and live on year after year. What I would ask of all of you is to help spread the word about this blog, the Top Ten Urban Legends about UGA Admissions page, and about our office in general so that the reality of what my office does gets out to the public. It gets frustrating to have to stamp out myths again and again, much less from an individual who initially contacted us for information. In the email, I count at least 7 myths, from it being easier to be admitted if a student is out-of-state, international, non-Atlanta suburb, a different race (optional on the application and asked per federal requirements) or religion (not even asked on the application!), that summer is a forced option, or that these students do poorly in 4-year graduation rates. My suggestion to everyone is to do your own research on each colleges admission process, be wary when you hear someone start a sentence with Well I heard that UGA looks at , and to please share this information with your counselors, your classmates, and your friends. I try my best to give you an honest insight into UGA Admissions, but I can only stomp out so many myths. Thank you for helping, and Go Dawgs!

Success Of A Mathematics Career - 992 Words

Success in a mathematics career is determined by a number of factors such as motivation, encouragement, hard work, and skill. The people we network with and people that educate us contribute to these factors. As the amount women completing their college careers continue to increase, we are still a minority in STEM fields, particularly mathematics. This has been proven first hand as I have yet to have a female mathematics professor at the University I attend. Thus I reached out to Dr. Sarah Reznikoff who eagerly agreed to answer all of my questions and be my inspiring female role model. Dr. Sarah Reznikoff grew up in Madison, Wisconsin. Growing up, Dr. Reznikoff had good teachers in high school that encouraged her in math. Dr. Reznikoff enjoyed mathematics because she was good at it. In school, being good in her math classes helped her think math is something she should continue to do. Not a bad idea to go off of since usually, when you are good at something, it aids in understanding and inspires one to continue to learn more. Along with math, Dr. Reznikoff loved her English classes and writing. But ultimately, she chose math because mathematics has a certainty factor. When the solution is right, it is right, whereas writing has more subjectivity. For the past 8 years, Dr. Reznikoff has been an assistant professor at Kansas State University. She received her PH.D. in 2002 from the University of California at Berkley. After earning her PH.D., Dr. Reznikoff was a postdoctoralShow MoreRelatedGraduation Speech For Becoming A Teacher852 Words   |  4 PagesThe following paper is a reflection of the experiences and life lessons that ultimately led me to choose a teaching career in mathematics. 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Secret Facts About Help with Dissertation

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Advertising Impact Free Essays

string(151) " both advertising expenditures and the stocks of perceived quality and awareness may lead to spurious positive estimates of the effect of advertising\." Quant Mark Econ (2009) 7:207–236 DOI 10. 1007/s11129-009-9066-z The effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality: An empirical investigation using panel data C. Robert Clark  · Ulrich Doraszelski  · Michaela Draganska Received: 11 December 2007 / Accepted: 2 April 2009 / Published online: 8 May 2009  © Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009 Abstract We use a panel data set that combines annual brand-level advertising expenditures for over three hundred brands with measures of brand awareness and perceived quality from a large-scale consumer survey to study the effect of advertising. We will write a custom essay sample on Advertising Impact or any similar topic only for you Order Now Advertising is modeled as a dynamic investment in a brand’s stocks of awareness and perceived quality and we ask how such an investment changes brand awareness and quality perceptions. Our panel data allow us to control for unobserved heterogeneity across brands and to identify the effect of advertising from the time-series variation within brands. They also allow us to account for the endogeneity of advertising through recently developed dynamic panel data estimation techniques. We ? nd that advertising has consistently a signi? cant positive effect on brand awareness but no signi? ant effect on perceived quality. Keywords Advertising  · Brand awareness  · Perceived quality  · Dynamic panel data methods JEL Classi? cation L15  · C23  · H37 C. R. Clark Institute of Applied Economics, HEC Montreal and CIRPEE, 3000 Chemin de la Cote-Sainte-Catherine, Montreal, Quebec H3T 2A7, Canada e-mail: robert. clark@hec. ca U. Doraszelski Department of Economics, Harvard Universit y, 1805 Cambridge Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA e-mail: doraszelski@harvard. edu ) M. Draganska (B Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5015, USA e-mail: draganska_michaela@gsb. tanford. edu 208 C. R. Clark et al. 1 Introduction In 2006 more than $280 billion were spent on advertising in the U. S. , well above 2% of GDP. By investing in advertising, marketers aim to encourage consumers to choose their brand. For a consumer to choose a brand, two conditions must be satis? ed: First, the brand must be in her choice set. Second, the brand must be preferred over all the other brands in her choice set. Advertising may facilitate one or both of these conditions. In this research we empirically investigate how advertising affects these two conditions. To disentangle the impact on choice set from that on preferences, we use actual measures of the level of information possessed by consumers about a large number of brands and of their quality perceptions. We compile a panel data set that combines annual brand-level advertising expenditures with data from a large-scale consumer survey, in which respondents were asked to indicate whether they were aware of different brands and, if so, to rate them in terms of quality. These data offer the unique opportunity to study the role of advertising for a wide range of brands across a number of different product categories. The awareness score measures how well consumers are informed about the existence and the availability of a brand and hence captures directly the extent to which the brand is part of consumers’ choice sets. The quality rating measures the degree of subjective vertical product differentiation in the sense that consumers are led to perceive the advertised brand as being better. Hence, our data allow us to investigate the relationship between advertising and two important dimensions of consumer knowledge. The behavioral literature in marketing has highlighted the same two dimensions in the form of the size of the consideration set and the relative strength of preferences (Nedungadi 1990; Mitra and Lynch 1995). It is, of course, possible that advertising also affects other aspects of consumer knowledge. For example, advertising may generate some form of subjective horizontal product differentiation that is unlikely to be re? ected in either brand awareness or perceived quality. In a recent paper Erdem et al. (2008), however, report that advertising focuses on horizontal attributes only for one out of the 19 brands examined. Understanding the channel through which advertising affects consumer choice is important for researchers and practitioners alike for several reasons. For example, Sutton’s (1991) bounds on industry concentration in large markets implicitly assume that advertising increases consumers’ willingness to pay by altering quality perceptions. While pro? ts increase in perceived quality, they may decrease in brand awareness (Fershtman and Muller 1993; Boyer and Moreaux 1999), thereby stalling the competitive escalation in advertising at the heart of the endogenous sunk cost theory. Moreover, Doraszelski and Markovich (2007) show that even in small markets industry dynamics can be very different depending on the nature of advertising. From an empirical perspective, when estimating a demand model, advertising could be modeled Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 209 as affecting the choice set or as affecting the utility that the consumer derives from a brand. If the role of advertising is mistakenly speci? ed as affecting quality perceptions (i. e. , preferences) rather than brand awareness as it often is, then the estimated parameters may be biased. In her study of the U. S. personal computer industry, Sovinsky Goeree (2008) ? nds that traditional demand models overstate price elasticities because they assume that consumers are aware of—and hence choose among—all brands in the market when in actuality most consumers are aware of only a small fraction of brands. For our empirical analysis we develop a dynamic estimation framework. Brand awareness and perceived quality are naturally viewed as stocks that are built up over time in response to advertising (Nerlove and Arrow 1962). At the same time, these stocks depreciate as consumers forget past advertising campaigns or as an old campaign is superseded by a new campaign. Advertising can thus be thought of as an investment in brand awareness and perceived quality. The dynamic nature of advertising leads us to a dynamic panel data model. In estimating this model we confront two important problems, namely unobserved heterogeneity across brands and the potential endogeneity of advertising. We discuss these below. When estimating the effect of advertising across brands we need to keep in mind that they are different in many respects. Unobserved factors that affect both advertising expenditures and the stocks of perceived quality and awareness may lead to spurious positive estimates of the effect of advertising. You read "Advertising Impact" in category "Essay examples" Put differently, if we detect an effect of advertising, then we cannot be sure if this effect is causal in the sense that higher advertising expenditures lead to higher brand awareness and perceived quality or if it is spurious in the sense that different brands have different stocks of perceived quality and awareness as well as advertising expenditures. For example, although in our data the brands in the fast food category on average have high advertising and high awareness and the brands in the cosmetics and fragrances category have low advertising and low awareness, we cannot infer that advertising boosts awareness. We can only conclude that the relationship between advertising expenditures, perceived quality, and brand awareness differs from category to category or even from brand to brand. Much of the existing literature uses cross-sectional data to discern a relationship between advertising expenditures and perceived quality (e. g. Kirmani and Wright 1989; Kirmani 1990; Moorthy and Zhao 2000; Moorthy and Hawkins 2005) in an attempt to test the idea that consumers draw inferences about the brand’s quality from the amount that is spent on advertising it (Nelson 1974; Milgrom and Roberts 1986; Tellis and Fornell 1988). With cross-sectional data it is dif? cult to account for unobserved heterogeneity across brands. Indeed, i f we neglect permanent differences between brands, then we ? nd that both brand awareness and perceived quality are positively correlated with advertising expenditures, thereby replicating the earlier studies. Once we make full use of our panel data and account for unobserved 210 C. R. Clark et al. heterogeneity, however, the effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality disappears. 1 Our estimation equations are dynamic relationships between a brand’s current stocks of perceived quality and awareness on the left-hand side and the brand’s previous stocks of perceived quality and awareness as well as its own and its rivals’ advertising expenditures on the right-hand side. In this context, endogeneity arises for two reasons. First, the lagged dependent variables are by construction correlated with all past error terms and therefore endogenous. As a consequence, traditional ? xed-effect methods are necessarily inconsistent. 2 Second, advertising expenditures may also be endogenous for economic reasons. For instance, media coverage such as news reports may affect brand awareness and perceived quality beyond the amount spent on advertising. To the extent that these shocks to the stocks of perceived quality and awareness of a brand feed back into decisions about advertising, say because the brand manager opts to advertise less if a news report has generated suf? ient awareness, they give rise to an endogeneity problem. To resolve the endogeneity problem we use the dynamic panel data methods developed by Arellano and Bond (1991), Arellano and Bover (1995), and Blundell and Bond (1998). The key advantage is that these methods do not rely on the availability of strictly exogenous explanatory variables or instru ments. This is an appealing methodology that has been widely applied (e. g. , Acemoglu and Robinson 2001; Durlauf et al. 2005; Zhang and Li 2007) because valid instruments are often hard to come by. Further, since these methods involve ? st differencing, they allow us to control for unobserved factors that affect both advertising expenditures and the stocks of perceived quality and awareness and may lead to spurious positive estimates of the effect of advertising. In addition, our approach allows for factors other than advertising to affect a brand’s stock of perceived quality and awareness to the extent that these factors are constant over time. Our main ? nding is that advertising expenditures have a signi? cant positive effect on brand awareness but no signi? cant effect on perceived quality. These results appear to be robust across a wide range of speci? cations. Since awareness is the most basic kind of information a consumer can have for a brand, we conclude that an important role of advertising is information provision. On the other hand, our results indicate that advertising is not likely to alter consumers’ quality perceptions. This conclusion calls for a reexamination of the implicit assumption underlying Sutton’s (1991) endogenous sunk cost theory. It also suggests that advertising should be modeled as affecting the choice set and not just utility when estimating demand. Finally, our ? ndings lend empirical 1 Another way to get around this issue is to take an experimental approach, as in Mitra and Lynch (1995). 2 This source of endogeneity is not tied to advertising in particular; rather it always arises in estimating dynamic relationships in the presence of unobserved heterogeneity. An exception is the (rather unusual) panel-data setting where one has T ? instead of N ?. In this case the within estimator is consistent (Bond 2002, p. 5). Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 211 upport to the view that advertising is generally procompetitive because it disseminates information about the existence, the price, and the attributes of products more widely among consumers (Stigler 1961; Telser 1964; Nelson 1970, 1974). The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows. In Sections 2 and 3 we explain the dynamic investment model and the corresponding empirical strategy. In Section 4 we describe the data and in Section 5 we present th e results of the empirical analysis. Section 6 concludes. 2 Model speci? cation We develop an empirical model based on the classic advertising-as-investment model of Nerlove and Arrow (1962). Related empirical models are the basis of current research on advertising (e. g. , Naik et al. 1998; Dube et al. 2005; Doganoglu and Klapper 2006; Bass et al. 2007). Naik et al. (1998), in particular, ? nd that the Nerlove and Arrow (1962) model provides a better ? t than other models that have been proposed in the literature such as Vidale and Wolfe (1957), Brandaid (Little 1975), Tracker (Blattberg and Golanty 1978), and Litmus (Blackburn and Clancy 1982). We extend the Nerlove and Arrow (1962) framework in two respects. First, we allow a brand’s stocks of awareness and perceived quality to be affected by the advertising of its competitors. This approach captures the idea that advertising takes place in a competitive environment where brands vie for the attention of consumers. The advertising of competitors may also be bene? cial to a brand if it draws attention to the entire category and thus expands the relevant market for the brand (e. g. , Nedungadi 1990; Kadiyali 1996). Second, we allow for a stochastic component in the effect of advertising on the stocks of awareness and perceived quality to re? ect the success or failure of an advertising campaign and other unobserved in? uences such as the creative quality of the advertising copy, media selection, or scheduling. More formally, we let Qit be the stock of perceived quality of brand i at the start of period t and Ait the stock of its awareness. We further let Eit? 1 denote the advertising expenditures of brand i over the course of period t ? 1 and E? it? 1 = (E1t? 1 , . . . , Ei? 1t? 1 , Ei+1t? 1 , . . . , Ent? 1 ) the advertising expenditures of its competitors. Then, at the most general level, the stocks of perceived quality and awareness of brand i evolve over time according to the laws of motion Qit = git (Qit? 1 , Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 , ? it ), Ait = hit (Ait? 1 , Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 , ? t ), where git ( ·) and hit ( ·) are brand- and time-speci? c functions. The idiosyncratic error ? it captures the success or failure of an advertising campaign along with all other omitted factors. For example, the quality of the advertising campaign may matter just as much as the amount spent on it. By recursively substituting 212 C. R. Clark et al. for the lagged stocks of perceived quality and awareness we can write the current stocks as functions of all past advertising expenditures and the current and all past error terms. This shows that these shocks to brand awareness and perceived quality are persistent over time. For example, the effect of a particularly good (or bad) advertising campaign may linger and be felt for some time to come. We model the effect of competitors’ advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality in two ways. First, we consider a brand’s â€Å"share of voice. † We use its advertising expenditures, Eit? 1 , relative to the average amount spent on advertising by rival brands in the brand’s subcategory or category, E? it? 1 . 3 To the extent that brands compete with each other for the attention of consumers, a brand may have to outspend its rivals to cut through the clutter. If so, then what is important may not be the absolute amount spent on advertising but the amount relative to rival brands. Second, we consider the amount of advertising in the entire market by including the average amount spent on advertising by rival brands in the brand’s subcategory or category. Advertising is market expanding if it attracts consumers to the entire category but not necessarily to a particular brand. In this way, competitors’ advertising may have a positive in? uence on, say, brand awareness. Taken together, our estimation equations are Qit = ? i + ? t + ? Qit? 1 + f (Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 ) + ? t , Ait = ? i + ? t + ? Ait? 1 + f (Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 ) + ? it . (1) (2) Here ? i is a brand effect that captures unobserved heterogeneity across brands and ? t is a time effect to control for possible systematic changes over time. The time effect may capture, for example, that consumers are systematically informed about a larger number of brands due to the advent of the internet and other alternative media channels. Through the brand effect we allow for factors other than advertising to affect a brand’s stocks of perceived quality and awareness to the extent that these factors are constant over time. For example, consumers may hear about a brand and their quality perceptions may be affected by word of mouth. Similarly, it may well be the case that consumers in the process of purchasing a brand become more informed about it and that their quality perceptions change, especially for high-involvement brands. Prior to purchasing a car, say, many consumers engage in research about the set of available cars and their respective characteristics, including quality ratings from sources such as car magazines and Consumer Reports. If these effects do not vary over time, then we fully account for them in our estimation because the dynamic panel data methods we employ involve ? rst differencing. The parameter ? measures how much of last period’s stocks of perceived quality and awareness are carried forward into this period’s stocks; 1 ? ? can 3 The Brandweek Superbrands survey reports on only the top brands (in terms of sales) in each subcategory or category. The number of brands varies from 3 for some subcategories to 10 for others. We therefore use the average, rather than the sum, of competitors’ advertising. Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 213 therefore be interpreted as the rate of depreciation of these stocks. Note that in the estimation we allow all parameters to be different across our estimation equations. For example, we do not presume that the carryover rates for perceived quality and brand awareness are the same. The function f ( ·) represents the response of brand awareness and perceived quality to the advertising expenditures of the brand and potentially also those of its rivals. In the simplest case absent competition we specify this function as 2 f (Eit? ) = ? 1 Eit? 1 + ? 2 Eit? 1 . This functional form is ? exible in that it allows for a nonlinear effect of advertising expenditures but does not impose one. Later on in Section 5. 6 we demonstrate the robustness of our results by considering a number of additional functional forms. To account for competition in the share-of-voice speci? cation, we set f Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 = ? 1 Eit? 1 E? it? 1 + ? 2 Eit? 1 E? it? 1 2 and in the total-advertising speci? cation, we set 2 f Eit? 1 , E? it? 1 = ? 1 Eit? 1 + ? 2 Eit? 1 + ? 3 E? it? 1 . Estimation strategy Equations 1 and 2 are dynamic relationships that feature lagged dependent variables on the right-hand side. When estimating, we confront the problems of unobserved heterogeneity across brands and the endogeneity of advertising. In our panel-data setting, ignoring unobserved heterogeneity is akin to dropping the brand effect ? i from Eqs. 1 and 2 and then estimating them by ordinary least squares. Since this approach relies on both cross-sectional and time-series variation to identify the effect of advertising, we refer to it as â€Å"pooled OLS† (POLS) in what follows. To account for unobserved heterogeneity we include a brand effect ? i and use the within estimator that treats ? i as a ? xed effect. We follow the usual convention in microeconomic applications that the term â€Å"? xed effect† does not necessarily mean that the effect is being treated as nonrandom; rather it means that we are allowing for arbitrary correlation between the unobserved brand effect and the observed explanatory variables (Wooldridge 2002, p. 251). The within estimator eliminates the brand effect by subtracting the within-brand mean from Eqs. 1 and 2. Hence, the identi? ation of the slope parameters that determine the effect of advertising relies solely on variation over time within brands; the information in the between-brand cross-sectional relationship is not used. We refer to this approach as â€Å"? xed effects† (FE). While FE accounts for unobserved heterogeneity, it suffers from an endogeneity problem. In our panel-data setting, endogeneity arises f or two reasons. First, since Eqs. 1 and 2 are inherently dynamic, the lagged stocks of perceived 214 C. R. Clark et al. quality and awareness may be endogenous. More formally, Qit? 1 and Ait? 1 are by construction correlated with ? s for s t. The within estimator subtracts the within-brand mean from Eqs. 1 and 2. The resulting regressor, say Qit? 1 ? Qi in the case of perceived quality, is correlated with the error term ? it ? ?i since ? i contains ? it? 1 along with all higher-order lags. Hence, FE is necessarily inconsistent. Second, advertising expenditures may also be endogenous for economic reasons. For instance, media coverage such as news reports may directly affect brand awareness and perceived quality. Our model treats media coverage other than advertising as shocks to the stocks of perceived quality and awareness. To the extent that these shocks feed back into decisions about advertising, say because the brand manager opts to advertise less if a news report has generated suf? cient awareness, they give rise to an endogeneity problem. More formally, it is reasonable to assume that Eit? 1 , the advertising expenditures of brand i over the course of period t ? 1, are chosen at the beginning of period t ? 1 with knowledge of ? it? 1 and higher-order lags and that therefore Eit? 1 is correlated with ? is for s t. We apply the dynamic panel-data method proposed by Arellano and Bond (1991) to deal with both unobserved heterogeneity and endogeneity. This methodology has the advantage that it does not rely on the availability of strictly exogenous explanatory variables or instruments. This is welcome because instruments are often hard to come by, especially in panel-data settings: The problem is ? nding a variable that is a good predictor of advertising expenditures and is uncorrelated with shocks to brand awareness and perceived quality; ? nding a variable that is a good predictor of lagged brand awareness and perceived quality and uncorrelated with current shocks to brand awareness and perceived quality is even less obvious. The key idea of Arellano and Bond (1991) is that if the error terms are serially uncorrelated, then lagged values of the dependent variable and lagged values of the endogenous right-hand-side variables represent valid instruments. To see this, take ? rst differences of Eq. 1 to obtain Qit ? Qit? 1 = (? t ? ?t? 1 ) + ? (Qit? 1 ? Qit? 2 ) + f (Eit? 1 ) ? f (Eit? 2 ) + (? it ? ?it? 1 ), (3) where we abstract from competition to simplify the notation. Eliminating the brand effect ? i accounts for unobserved heterogeneity between brands. The remaining problem with estimating Eq. 3 by least-squares is that Qit? 1 ? Qit? is by construction correlated with ? it ? ?it? 1 since Qit? 1 is correlated with ? it? 1 by virtue of Eq. 1. Moreover, as we have discussed above, Eit? 1 may also be correlated with ? it? 1 for economic reasons. We take advantage of the fact that we have observations on a number of periods in order to come up with instruments for the endogenous variables. In particular, thi s is possible starting in the third period where Eq. 3 becomes Qi3 ? Qi2 = (? 3 ? ?2 ) + ? (Qi2 ? Qi1 ) + f (Ei2 ) ? f (Ei1 ) + (? i3 ? ?i2 ). Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 215 In this case Qi1 is a valid instrument for (Qi2 ? Qi1 ) since it is correlated with (Qi2 ? Qi1 ) but uncorrelated with (? i3 ? ?i2 ) and, similarly, Ei1 is a valid instrument for ( f (Ei2 ) ? f (Ei1 )). In the fourth period Qi1 and Qi2 are both valid instruments since neither is correlated with (? i4 ? ?i3 ) and, similarly, Ei1 and Ei2 are both valid instruments. In general, for lagged dependent variables and for endogenous right-hand-side variables, levels of these variables that are lagged two or more periods are valid instruments. This allows us to generate more instruments for later periods. The resulting estimator is referred to as â€Å"difference GMM† (DGMM). A potential dif? culty with the DGMM estimator is that lagged levels may be poor instruments for ? rst differences when the underlying variables are highly persistent over time. Arellano and Bover (1995) and Blundell and Bond (1998) propose an augmented estimator in which the original equations in levels are added to the system. The idea is to create a stacked data set containing differences and levels and then to instrument differences with levels and levels with differences. The required assumption is that brand effects are uncorrelated with changes in advertising expenditures. This estimator is commonly referred to as â€Å"system GMM† (SGMM). In Section 5 we report and compare results for DGMM and SGMM. It is important to test the validity of the instruments proposed above. Following Arellano and Bond (1991) we report a Hansen J test for overidentifying restrictions. This test examines whether the instruments are jointly exogenous. We also report the so-called difference-in-Hansen J test to examine speci? cally whether the additional instruments for the level equations used in SGMM (but not in DGMM) are valid. Arellano and Bond (1991) further develop a test for second-order serial correlation in the ? st differences of the error terms. As described above, both GMM estimators require that the levels of the error terms be serially uncorrelated, implying that the ? rst differences are serially correlated of at most ? rst order. We caution the reader that the test for second-order serial correlation is formally only de? ned if the number of periods in the sample is greater than or equal to 5 whereas we observe a brand on average for just 4. 2 periods in our application. Our preliminary estimates suggest that the error terms are unlikely to be serially uncorrelated as required by Arellano and Bond (1991). The AR(2) test described above indicates ? rst-order serial correlation in the error terms. An AR(3) test for third-order serial correlation in the ? rst differences of the error terms, however, indicates the absence of second-order serial correlation in the error terms. 4 In this case, Qit? 2 and Eit? 2 are no longer valid instruments for Eq. 3. Intuitively, because Qit? 2 is correlated with ? it? 2 by virtue of Eq. 1 and ? it? 2 is correlated with ? it? 1 by ? rst-order serial correlation, Qit? 2 is correlated 4 Of course, the AR(3) test uses less observations than the AR(2) test and is therefore also less powerful. 16 C. R. Clark et al. with ? it? 1 in Eq. 3, and similarly for Eit? 2 . Fortunately, however, Qit? 3 and Eit? 3 remain valid instruments because ? it? 3 is uncorrelated with ? it? 1 . We carry out the DGMM and SGMM estimation using STATA’s xtabond2 routine (Roodman 2007). We enter third and higher lags of either brand awareness or perceived quality, together with third and higher lags of advertising expenditures as instruments. In addition to these â€Å"GMM-style† instruments, for the difference equations we enter the time dummies as â€Å"IV-style† instruments. We also apply the ? ite-sample correction proposed by Windmeijer (2005) which corrects for the two-step covariance matrix and substantially increases the ef? ciency of both GMM estimators. Finally, we compute standard errors that are robust to heteroskedasticity and arbitrary patterns of serial correlation within brands. 4 Data Our data are derived from the Brandweek Superbrands surveys from 2000 to 2005. Each year’s survey lists the top brands in terms of sales during the past year from 25 broad categories. Inside these categories are often a number of more narrowly de? ned subcategories. Table 1 lists the categories along with their subcategories. The surveys report perceived quality and awareness scores for the current year and the advertising expenditures for the previous year by brand. Perceived quality and awareness scores are calculated by Harris Interactive in their Equitrend brand-equity study. Each year Harris Interactive surveys online between 20, 000 and 45, 000 consumers aged 15 years and older in order to determine their perceptions of a brand’s quality and its level of awareness for approximately 1, 000 brands. 5 To ensure that the respondents accurately re? ect the general population their responses are propensity weighted. Each respondent rates around 80 of these brands. Perceived quality is measured on a 0–10 scale, with 0 meaning unacceptable/poor and 10 meaning outstanding/ extraordinary. Awareness scores vary between 0 and 100 and equal the percentage of respondents that can rate the brand’s quality. The quality rating is therefore conditional on the respondent being aware of the brand. 6 5 The exact wording of the question is: â€Å"We will display for you a list of brands and we are asking you to rate the overall quality of each brand using a 0 to 10 scale, where ‘0’ means ‘Unacceptable/Poor Quality’, ‘5’ means ‘Quite Acceptable Quality’ and ‘10’ means ‘Outstanding/ Extraordinary Quality’. You may use any number from 0 to 10 to rate the brands, or use 99 for ‘No Opinion’ option if you have absolutely no opinion about the brand. † Panelists are being incentivized through sweepstakes on a periodic basis but are not paid for a particular survey. 6 The 2000 Superbrands survey does not separately report perceived quality and salience scores. We received these scores directly from Harris Interactive. 2000 is the ? rst year for which we have been able to obtain perceived quality and salience scores for a large number of brands. Starting with the 2004 and 2005 Superbrands surveys, salience is replaced by a new measure called â€Å"familiarity. † For these two years we received salience scores directly from Harris Interactive. The contemporaneous correlation between salience and familiarity is 0. 98 and signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 000. Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality Table 1 Categories and subcategories 1. Apparel 2. Appliances 3. Automobiles a. general automobiles b. luxury c. subcompact d. sedan/wagon e. trucks/suvs/vans 4. Beer, wine, liquor a. beer b. wine c. malternatives d. iquor 5. Beverages a. general b. new age/sports/water 6. Computers a. software b. hardware 7. Consumer electronics 8. Cosmetics and fragrances a. color cosmetics b. eye color c. lip color d. women’s fragrances e. men’s fragrances 9. Credit cards 10. Entertainment 11. Fast food 12. Financial services 13. Food a. ready to eat cereal b. cereal bars c. cookies d. cheese e. crackers f. salted snacks g. frozen dinners and entrees Items in italics have been removed 217 h. frozen pizza i. spaghetti sauce j. coffee k. ice cream l. refrigerated orange juice m. refrigerated yogurt n. oy drinks o. luncheon meats p. meat alternatives q. baby formula/electrolyte solutions r. pourable salad dressing 14. Footwear 15. Health and beauty a. bar soap b. toothpaste c. shampoo d. hair color 16. Household a. cleaner b. laundry detergents c. diapers d. facial tissue e. toilet tissue f. automatic dishwater detergent 17. Petrol a. oil companies b. automotive aftercare/lube 18. Pharmaceutical OTC a. allergy/cold medicine b. stomach/antacids c. analgesics 19. Pharmaceutical prescription 20. Retail 21. Telecommunications 22. Tobacco 23. Toys 24. Travel 25. World Wide Web We supplement the awareness and quality measures with advertising expenditures that are taken from TNS Media Intelligence and Competitive Media Reporting. These advertising expenditures encompass spending in a wide range of media: Magazines (consumer magazines, Sunday magazines, local magazines, and business-to-business magazines), newspaper (local and national newspapers), television (network TV, spot TV, syndicated TV, and network cable TV), radio (network, national spot, and local), Spanish-language media (magazines, newspapers, and TV networks), internet, and outdoor. After eliminating categories and subcategories where observations are not at the brand level (apparel, entertainment, ? nancial services, retail, world wide web) or where the data are suspect (tobacco), we are left with 19 categories (see again Table 1). We then drop all private labels and all brands for which 218 C. R. Clark et al. we do not have perceived quality and awareness scores as well as advertising expenditures for at least two years running. This leaves us with 348 brands. Table 2 contains descriptive statistics for the overall sample and also by category. In the overall sample the average awareness score is 69. 5 and the average perceived quality score is 6. 36. The average amount spent on advertising is around $66 million per year. There is substantial variation in these measures across categories. The variation in perceived quality (coef? cient of variation is 0. 11 overall, ranging from 0. 04 for appliances to 0. 13 for computers) tends to be lower than the variation i n brand awareness (coef? cient of variation is 0. 28 overall, ranging from 0. 05 for appliances to 0. 46 for telecommunications), in line with the fact the quality rating is conditional on the respondent being aware of the brand. The contemporaneous correlation between brand awareness and perceived quality is 0. 60 and signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 000. The contemporaneous correlation between advertising expenditures and the change in brand awareness is 0. 0488 and signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 0985 and the contemporaneous correlation between advertising expenditures and the change in perceived quality is 0. 0718 and signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 0150. These correlations anticipate the spurious correlation between both brand awareness and perceived quality and advertising expenditures if permanent differences between brands are neglected (POLS estimator). We will see though that the effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality Table 2 Descriptive statistics # obs # brands Brand awareness Perceived Advertising (0–100) quality (0–10) ($1,000,000) Mean Std. dev. Mean Std. dev. Mean Std. dev. Overall Appliances Automobiles Beer, wine, liquor Beverages Computers Consumer electronics Cosmetics and fragrances Credit cards Fast food Food Footwear Health and beauty Household Petrol Pharmaceutical OTC Pharmaceutical prescription Telecommunications Toys Travel 1,478 348 21 137 98 95 79 29 70 29 60 247 38 54 128 48 56 31 52 25 181 4 30 24 22 17 7 19 6 12 65 8 11 31 13 15 10 11 5 38 69. 5 85. 09 67. 81 62. 23 84. 57 59. 80 67. 83 49. 37 70. 97 93. 83 80. 18 64. 95 82. 50 73. 83 60. 52 76. 96 29. 97 49. 33 72. 12 59. 48 19. 43 4. 54 6. 72 10. 13 13. 84 23. 05 18. 68 15. 75 18. 08 5. 32 14. 94 18. 98 9. 80 16. 03 17. 19 13. 89 9. 69 22. 86 9. 74 15. 43 6. 36 7. 35 6. 51 5. 68 6. 51 6. 41 6. 60 5. 83 6. 24 6. 28 6. 66 6. 39 6 . 67 6. 66 5. 95 6. 79 5. 54 5. 28 6. 95 6. 26 0. 70 0. 32 0. 59 0. 72 0. 58 0. 81 0. 73 0. 52 0. 73 0. 42 0. 65 0. 42 0. 41 0. 56 0. 30 0. 37 0. 67 0. 52 0. 32 0. 52 66. 21 118. 52 41. 87 33. 19 99. 85 64. 62 36. 78 45. 11 41. 33 42. 19 130. 43 130. 7 104. 83 160. 66 38. 02 47. 48 174. 54 109. 77 214. 80 156. 23 13. 93 13. 81 40. 27 46. 89 27. 28 33. 44 21. 80 25. 43 33. 54 34. 65 38. 71 18. 13 76. 23 36. 40 367. 93 360. 54 108. 55 54. 36 25. 41 25. 88 Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 219 disappears once unobserved heterogeneity is accounted for (FE and GMM estimators). The intertemporal correlation is 0. 98 for brand awareness, 0. 95 for perceived quality, and 0. 93 for advertising expenditures. This limited amount of intertemporal variation warrants preferring the SGMM over the DGMM estimator. At the same time, however, it constrains how ? nely we can â€Å"slice† the data, e. g. , by isolating a brand-speci? c effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness and perceived quality. Since the FE, DGMM, and SGMM estimators rely on within-brand acrosstime variation, it is important to ensure that there is a suf? cient amount of within-brand variation in brand awareness, perceived quality, and advertising expenditures. Table 3 presents a decomposition of the standard deviation in these variables into an across-brands and a within-brand component for the overall sample and also by category. The across-brands standard deviation is a measure of the cross-sectional variation and the within-brand standard deviation is a measure of the time-series variation. The across-brands standard deviation of brand awareness is about six times larger than the within-brand standard deviation. This ratio varies across categories and ranges from 2 for automobiles, beer, wine, liquor, and pharmaceutical prescription to 6 for health and beauty and pharmaceutical OTC. In case of perceived quality the ratio is about 4 (ranging from 1 for telecommunications to 5 for consumer electronics, credit cards, and household). Hence, while there is more crosssectional than time-series variation in our sample, the time-series variation is substantial for both brand awareness and perceived quality. Figure 1 illustrates Table 3 Variance decomposition Brand awareness (0–100) Across Overall Appliances Automobiles Beer, wine, liquor Beverages Computers Consumer electronics Cosmetics and fragrances Credit cards Fast food Food Footwear Health and beauty Household Petrol Pharmaceutical OTC Pharmaceutical prescription Telecommunications Toys Travel 20. 117 5. 282 6. 209 10. 181 13. 435 23. 094 19. 952 18. 054 19. 568 6. 132 16. 241 20. 417 10. 36 16. 719 20. 179 13. 339 9. 393 21. 659 11. 217 16. 063 Within 3. 415 1. 334 3. 281 4. 105 2. 915 3. 843 5. 611 3. 684 3. 903 1. 660 2. 255 4. 267 1. 772 3. 896 3. 669 2. 363 5. 772 5. 604 3. 589 3. 216 Perceived quality (0–10) Across 0. 726 0. 323 0. 561 0. 705 0. 582 0. 850 0. 800 0. 563 0. 788 0. 361 0. 702 0. 388 0. 397 0. 561 0. 415 0. 336 0. 753 0. 452 0. 360 0. 516 Within 0. 176 0. 148 0. 141 0. 186 0. 190 0. 313 0. 167 0. 208 0. 159 0. 202 0. 134 0. 167 0. 136 0. 113 0. 116 0. 129 0. 230 0. 334 0. 127 0. 153 Advertising ($1,000,000) Across 100. 823 28. 965 54. 680 41. 713 37. 505 110. 362 105. 49 38. 446 118. 059 159. 306 15. 655 45. 791 27. 054 18. 789 27. 227 16. 325 38. 648 317. 434 61. 419 22. 136 Within 43. 625 21. 316 32. 552 12. 406 13. 372 65. 909 114. 381 20. 053 43. 415 33. 527 7. 998 7. 640 19. 075 16. 672 20. 496 9. 080 27. 919 178. 406 18. 584 10. 909 220 .025 . 2 C. R. Clark et al. .02 Density . 01 . 015 0 .005 0 20 40 60 80 Mean brand awareness 100  ® 0 –30 .05 Density . 1 .15 –20 –10 0 10 20 Demeaned brand awareness 30  ® .8 .6 Density . 4 0 .2 0 2 4 6 Mean perceived quality 8 10  ® 0 –1. 5 1 Density 2 3 –1 –. 5 0 . 5 1 Demeaned perceived quality 1. 5  ® .015 Density . 005 . 01 0 0 00 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Mean advertising expenditures (millions of $)  ® 0 â €“600 –400 –200 0 200 400 600 Demeaned advertising expenditures (millions of $)  ® Fig. 1 Variance decomposition. Histogram of brand-mean of brand awareness, perceived quality, and advertising expenditures (left panels) and histogram of de-meaned brand awareness, perceived quality, and advertising expenditures (right panels) the decomposition for the overall sample. The left panels show histograms of the brand-mean of brand awareness, perceived quality, and advertising expenditures and the right panels show histograms of the de-meaned variables. Again it is evident that the time-series variation is substantial for both brand awareness and perceived quality. 5 Empirical results In Tables 4 and 5 we present a number of different estimates for the effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness and perceived quality, .005 Density . 01 . 015 .02 .025 Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality Table 4 Brand awareness POLS Lagged brand awareness Advertising Advertising2 Marginal effect of advertising at: Mean 25th pctl. 50th pctl. 75th pctl. Advertising test: ? 1 = ? 2 = 0 Speci? ation tests: Hansen J Difference-in-Hansen J Arellano Bond AR(2) Arellano Bond AR(3) Goodness of ? t measures: R2 -within R2 -between R2 # obs # brands FE DGMM SGMM 221 0. 942*** 0. 223*** 0. 679*** 0. 837*** (0. 00602) (0. 0479) (0. 109) (0. 0266) 0. 00535*** 0. 00687 0. 0152 0. 00627** (0. 00117) (0. 00443) (0. 0139) (0. 00300) ? 0. 00000409*** ? 0. 00000139 ? 0. 0000105 ? 0. 00000524** (0. 000000979) (0. 00000332) (0. 000007 45) (0. 00000239) 0. 00481*** (0. 00107) 0. 00527*** (0. 00116) 0. 00514*** (0. 00113) 0. 00470*** (0. 00105) Reject*** 0. 00668 (0. 00412) 0. 00684 (0. 00438) 0. 00679 (0. 00430) 0. 00664 (0. 0405) 0. 0138 (0. 0129) 0. 0150 (0. 0138) 0. 0147 (0. 0135) 0. 0136 (0. 00127) 0. 00558** (0. 00269) 0. 00617** (0. 00296) 0. 00600** (0. 00288) 0. 00544** (0. 00263) Do not reject Do not reject Reject* Do not reject Do not reject Reject** Reject** Do not reject Do not reject 0. 494 0. 940 0. 851 1,148 317 Reject*** 0. 969 1,148 317 819 274 1,148 317 Standard errors in parenthesis * p = 0. 10; ** p = 0. 05; *** p = 0. 01 respectively. Starting with the simplest case absent competition, we present estimates of ? , ? 1 , and ? 2 (the coef? cients on Qit? 1 or Ait? 1 and Eit? 1 and 2 Eit? 1 ) along with the marginal effect ? 1 + 2? Eit? 1 calculated at the mean and the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles of advertising expenditures. The POLS estimates in the ? rst column of Tables 4 and 5 suggest a signi? cant positive effect of advertising expenditures on both brand awareness and perceived quality. In both cases we also reject the null hypothesis that advertising plays no role in determining brand awareness and perceived quality (? 1 = ? 2 = 0). Of course, as mentioned above, POLS accounts for neither unobserved heterogeneity nor endogeneity. In the next columns of Tables 4 and 5 we present FE, DGMM, and SGMM estimates that attend to these issues. 7 7 The stimates use at most 317 out of 348 brands because we restrict the sample to brands with data for two years running but use third and higher lags of brand awareness respectively perceived quality and advertising expenditures as instruments. Different sample sizes are reported for the DGMM and SGMM estimators. Sample size is not a well-de? ned concept in SGMM since this estimator essentially runs on two different samples simultaneously. The xtabond2 routine in STATA reports the size of the transformed sample for DGMM and of t he untransformed sample for SGMM. 222 Table 5 Perceived quality FE 0. 391*** (0. 0611) 0. 659*** (0. 204) 1. 47*** (0. 0459) 0. 981*** (0. 0431) DGMM SGMM Objective quality Brand awareness POLS Lagged perceived quality 0. 970*** (0. 0110) Brand awareness Advertising Advertising2 0. 000218** (0. 0000952) ? 0. 000000133 (0. 000000107) 0. 0000822 (0. 000198) 0. 0000000408 (0. 000000162) ?0. 0000195 (0. 000969) 0. 000000108 (0. 000000945) 0. 0000219 (0. 000205) 0. 0000000571 (0. 000000231) 0. 0000649 (0. 000944) 0. 0000000807 (0. 00000308) 0. 937*** (0. 0413) 0. 00596*** (0. 00165) ? 0. 000298 (0. 000256) 0. 000000319 (0. 000000267) Marginal effect of advertising at: Mean 25th pctl. 50th pctl. 75th pctl. 0. 0002** (0. 0000819) 0. 000215** (0. 000933) 0. 000211** (0. 00009) 0. 0001965** (0. 0000793) Do not reject Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject Do not reject Do not reject Reject** Reject** Reject*** Do not reject 0. 0000877 (0. 000180) 0. 000083 (0. 000195) 0. 0000844 (0. 000191) 0 . 0000887 (0. 000177) ?5. 13e? 06 (0. 000848) ? 0. 0000174 (0. 000952) ? 0. 0000139 (0. 000922) ? 2. 32e? 06 (0. 000825) 0. 0000295 (0. 000176) 0. 0000230 (0. 000201) 0. 0000249 (0. 000194) 0. 0000310 (0. 000170) 0. 0000594 (0. 000740) 0. 0000642 (0. 000917) 0. 0000623 (0. 000847) 0. 0000588 (0. 000714) Do not reject Do not reject Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject ?0. 000256 (0. 000222) ? 0. 00292 (0. 000251) ? 0. 000282 (0. 000242) ? 0. 000248 (0. 000215) Do not reject Reject** Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject Advertising test: ? 1 = ? 2 = 0 Speci? cation tests: Hansen J Difference-in-Hansen J Arellano Bond AR(2) Arellano Bond AR(3) Goodness of ? t measures: R2 -within R2 -between R2 # obs # brands 0. 180 0. 952 0. 909 1,148 317 819 274 1,148 317 Reject** 0. 914 1,148 317 604 178 1,148 317 C. R. Clark et al. Standard errors in parenthesis. SGMM estimates in columns labeled â€Å"Objective quality† and â€Å"Brand awareness† * p = 0. 10; ** p = 0. 05; *** p = 0. 01 Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 23 Regardless of the class of estimator we ? nd a signi? cant positive effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness. With the FE estimator we ? nd that the marginal effect of advertising on awareness at the mean is 0. 00668. It is borderline signi? cant with a p-value of 0. 105 and implies an elasticity of 0. 00638 (with a standard error of 0. 00392). A one-standard-deviation increase of advertising expenditures increase brand awareness by 0. 0408 standard deviations (with a standard error of 0. 0251). The rate of depreciation of a brand’s stock of awareness is estimated to be 1–0. 223 or 78% per year. The FE estimator identi? es the effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness solely from the within-brand across-time variation. The problem with this estimator is that it does not deal with the endogeneity of the lagged dependent variable on the right-hand side of Eq. 2 and the potential endogeneity of advertising expenditures. We thus turn to the GMM estimators described in Section 3. We focus on the more ef? cient SGMM estimator. The coef? cient on the linear term in advertising expenditures is estimated to be 0. 00627 ( p-value 0. 037) and the coef? cient on the quadratic term is estimated to be ? . 00000524 ( p-value 0. 028). These estimates support the hypothesis that the relationship between advertising and awareness is nonlinear. The marginal effect of advertising on awareness is estimated to be 0. 00558 ( p-value 0. 038) at the mean and implies an elasticity of 0. 00533 (with a standard error of 0. 00257). A one-standard-deviation increase of advertising expenditure s increases brand awareness by 0. 0340 standard deviations (with a standard error of 0. 0164). The rate of depreciation decreases substantially after correcting for endogeneity and is estimated to be 1? . 828 or 17% per year, thus indicating that an increase in a brand’s stock of awareness due to an increase in advertising expenditures persists for years to come. The Hansen J test for overidentifying restrictions indicates that the instruments taken together as a group are valid. Recall from Section 3 that we must assume that an extra condition holds in order for the SGMM estimator to be appropriate. The difference-in-Hansen J test con? rms that it does, as we cannot reject the null hypothesis that the additional instruments for the level equations are valid. While we reject the hypothesis of no second-order serial correlation in the error terms, we cannot reject the hypothesis of no thirdorder serial correlation. This result further validates our instrumenting strategy. However, one may still be worried about the SGMM estimates because DGMM uses a strict subset of the orthogonality conditions of SGMM and we reject the Hansen J test for the DGMM estimates (see Table 4). From a formal statistical point of view, rejecting the smaller set of orthogonality conditions in DGMM is not conclusive evidence that the larger set of orthogonality conditions in SGMM are invalid (Hayashi 2000, pp. 18–221). In Fig. 2 we plot the marginal effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness over the entire range of advertising expenditures for our SGMM estimates along with a histogram of advertising expenditures. For advertising expenditures between $400 million and $800 million per year the marginal effect of advertising on awareness is no longer signi? cantly different from zero 224 C. R. Clark et al. Marginal effect –. 004 0 . 004 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Advertising expenditures (millions of $) 1200 1400 arginal effect of advertising lower 90% confidence limit . 015 upper 90% confidence limit 0 0 .005 Density . 01 200 400 600 800 1000 Advertising expenditures (millions of $) 1200 1400  ® Fig. 2 Pointwise con? dence interval for the marginal effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness (upper panel) and histogram of advertising expenditures (lower panel). SGMM estimates and, statistically, it is actually negative for very high advertising expenditures over $800 million per year. The former case covers around 1. 9% of observations and the latter less than 0. 5%. One possible interpretation is that brands with very high current advertising expenditures are those that are already wellknown (perhaps because they have been heavily advertised over the years), so that advertising cannot further boost their awareness. Indeed, average awareness for observations with over $400 million in advertising expenditures is 74. 94 as compared to 69. 35 for the entire sample. Turning from brand awareness in Table 4 to perceived quality in Table 5, we see that the positive effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality found by the POLS estimator disappears once unobserved eterogeneity is accounted by the FE, DGMM, and SGMM estimators. In fact, we cannot reject the null hypothesis that advertising plays no role in determining perceived quality. Figure 3 graphically illustrates the absence of an effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality at the margin for our DGMM estimates. While the effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality is very imprecisely estimated, it appears to be economically insigni? cant: The implied elasticity is ? 0. 0000534 (with a standard error of 0. 00883) and a one-standarddeviation increase of advertising expenditures decrease perceived quality by Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 225 Marginal effect –. 001 0 . 001 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Advertising expenditures (millions of $) 1200 1400 marginal effect of advertising lower 90% confidence limit . 015 upper 90% confidence limit 0 0 Density . 005 . 01 200 400 600 800 1000 Advertising expenditures (millions of $) 1200 1400  ® Fig. 3 Pointwise con? dence interval for the marginal effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality (upper panel) and histogram of advertising expenditures (lower panel). DGMM estimates 0. 000869 standard deviations (with a standard error of 0. 44). Note that the comparable effects for brand awareness are two orders of magnitude larger. Much of the remainder of this paper is concerned with demonstrating the robustness of this negative result. Before proceeding we note that whenever possible we focus on the more ef? cient SGMM estimator. Unfortunately, for perceived quality in many cases, including that in the f ourth column of Table 5, the difference-in-Hansen J test rejects the null hypothesis that the extra moments in the SGMM estimator are valid. In these cases we focus on the DGMM estimator. 5. Objective and perceived quality An important component of a brand’s perceived quality is its objective quality. To the extent that objective quality remains constant, it is absorbed into the brand effects. But, even though the time frame of our sample is not very long, it is certainly possible that the objective quality of some brands has changed over the course of our sample. If so, then the lack of an effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality may be explained if brand managers increase advertising expenditures to compensate for decreases in objective 26 C. R. Clark et al. quality. To the extent that increased advertising expenditures and decreased objective quality cancel each other out, their net effect on perceived quality may be zero. The dif? culty with testing this al ternative explanation is that we do not have data on objective quality. We therefore exclude from the analysis those categories with brands that are likely to undergo changes in objective quality (appliances, automobiles, computers, consumer electronics, fast food, footwear, pharmaceutical OTC, telecommunications, toys, and travel). The resulting estimates are reported in Table 5 under the heading â€Å"Objective quality. † We still ? nd no effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality. 8 5. 2 Variation in perceived quality Another possible reason for the lack of an effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality is that perceived quality may not vary much over time. This is not the case in our data. Indeed, the standard deviation of the year-to-year changes in perceived quality is 0. 2154. Even for those products whose objective quality does not change over time there are important changes in perceived quality (standard deviation 0. 130). For example, consider bottled water where we expect little change in objective quality over time, both within and across brands. Nonetheless, there is considerable variation in perceived quality. The perceived quality of Aqua? na Water ranges across years from 6. 33 to 6. 90 and that of Poland Spring Water from 5. 91 to 6. 43, so the equivalent of over two standard deviations. Across the brands of bottled water the range is from 5. 88 to 6. 90, or the equivalent of over four standard deviations. Further evidence of variation in perceived quality is provided by the automobiles category. Here we have obtained measures of objective quality from Consumer Reports that rate vehicles based on their performance, comfort, convenience, safety, and fuel economy. We can ? nd examples of brands whose objective quality does not change at least for a number of years while their perceived quality ? uctuates considerably. For example, Chevy Silverado’s objective quality does not change between 2000 and 2002, but its perceived quality increases from 6. 08 to 6. 71 over these three years. Similarly, GMC Sierra’s objective quality does not change between 2001 and 2003, but its perceived quality decreases from 6. 72 to 6. 26. The ? al piece of evidence that we have to offer is the variance decomposition from Section 4 (see again Table 3 and Fig. 1). Recall that the acrossbrands standard deviation of brand awareness is about six times larger than the within-brand standard deviation. In case of perceived quality the ratio is about 4. Hence, while there is more cross-section al than time-series variation in our sample, the time-series variation is substantial for both brand aware- 8 The marginal effects are calculated at the mean, 25th, 50th, and 75th percentile for advertising for the brands in the categories judged to be stable in terms of objective quality over time. Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 227 ness and perceived quality. Also recall from Section 4 that perceived quality with an intertemporal correlation of 0. 95 is somewhat less persistent than brand awareness with an intertemporal correlation of 0. 98. Given that we are able to detect an effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness, it seems unlikely that insuf? cient variation within brands can explain the lack of an effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality; instead, our results suggest that the variation in perceived quality is unrelated to advertising expenditures. The question then becomes what besides advertising may drive these changes in perceived quality. There are numerous possibilities, including consumer learning and word-of-mouth effects. Unfortunately, given the data available to us, we cannot further explore these possibilities. 5. 3 Brand awareness and perceived quality Another concern is that consumers may confound awareness and preference. That is, consumers may simply prefer more familiar brands over less familiar ones (see Zajonc 1968). To address this issue we proxy for consumers’ familiarity by adding brand awareness to the regression for perceived quality. The resulting estimates are reported in Table 5 under the heading â€Å"Brand awareness. † While there is a signi? cant positive relationship between brand awareness and perceived quality, there is still no evidence of a signi? cant positive effect of advertising expenditures on perceived quality. 5. 4 Competitive effects Advertising takes place in a competitive environment. Most of the industries being studied here are indeed oligopolies, which suggests that strategic considerations may in? uence advertising decisions. We next allow a brand’s stocks of awareness and perceived quality to be affected by the advertising of its competitors as discussed in Section 2. 9 Competitors’ advertising, in turn, can enter our estimation Eqs. 1 and 2 either relative in the share-of-voice speci? cation or absolute in the total-advertising speci? cation. We report the resulting estimates in Table 6. Somewhat surprisingly, the share-of-voice speci? cation yields an insignificant effect of own advertising. We conclude that the share-of-voice speci? cation is simply not an appropriate functional form in our application. The total-advertising speci? ation readily con? rms our main ? ndings presented above that own advertising affects brand awareness but not perceived quality. This is true even if we allow competitors’ advertising to enter quadratically in 9 For this analysis we take the subcategory rather than the category as the relevant competitive environment. Consider for instance the beer, win e, liquor category. There is no reason to expect the advertising expenditures of beer brands to affect the perceived quality or awareness of liquor brands. We drop any subcategory in any year where there is just one brand due to the lack of competitors. Table 6 Competitive effects Perceived quality 0. 845*** (0. 0217) 0. 356** (0. 145) Total advertising Brand awareness Perceived quality 228 Share of voice Brand awareness Lagged awareness/quality Relative advertising (Relative advertising)2 0. 872*** (0. 0348) 0. 236 (0. 170) ? 0. 00912 (0. 0104) 1. 068*** (0. 0406) 0. 0168 (0. 0164) ? 0. 00102 (0. 00132) Advertising Advertising2 Competitors’ advertising 0. 00892** (0. 00387) ? 0. 00000602** (0. 00000248) ? 0. 00609* (0. 00363) ?0. 0000180 (0. 000592) ? 0. 0000000303 (0. 000000535) 0. 00128** (0. 000515) Marginal effect of advertising at: Mean 5th pctl. 50th pctl. 75th pctl. 0. 00333 (0. 00239) 0. 0164 (0. 01218) 0. 00624 (0. 00448) 0. 00264 (0. 00190) Do not reject Reject* Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject 1,147 317 0. 000225 (0. 000218) 0. 00113 (0. 00110) 0. 00429 (0. 000416) 0. 000179 (0. 000173) 0. 00812** (0. 00355) 0. 00881** (0. 00382) 0. 00861** (0. 00375) 0. 00797** (0. 00349) Reject** Do not reject Do not reject Reject** Do not reject 1,147 317 ?0. 000140 (0. 000524) ? 0. 0000174 (0. 000582) ? 0. 0000164 (0. 000565) ? 0. 0000132 (0. 000510) Do not reject Do not reject Reject*** Do not reject 1,147 317 C. R. Clark et al. Advertising test: ? 1 = ? 2 = 0 Speci? cation tests: Hansen J Difference-in-Hansen J Arellano Bond AR(2) Arellano Bond AR(3) # obs # brands Do not reject Do not reject Do not reject Reject** Do not reject 1,147 317 Standard errors in parenthesis. DGMM estimates in column labeled â€Å"Total advertising/perceived quality† and SGMM estimates otherwise * p = 0. 10; ** p = 0. 05; *** p = 0. 01 Effect of advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality 229 addition to linearly. Competitors’ advertising has a signi? cant negative effect on brand awareness and a signi? cant positive effect on perceived quality. Repeating the analysis using the sum instead of the average of competitors’ advertising yields largely similar results except that the share-of-voice speci? cation yields a signi? cant negative effect of advertising on brand awareness, thereby reinforcing our conclusion that this is not an appropriate functional form. 10 Overall, the inclusion of competitors’ advertising does not seem to in? uence our results about the role of own advertising on brand awareness and perceived quality. This justi? es our focus on the simple model without competition. Moreover, it suggests that the following alternative explanation for our main ? dings presented above is unlikely. Suppose awareness depended positively on the total amount of advertising in the brand’s subcategory or category while perceived quality depended positively on the brand’s own advertising but negatively on competitors’ advertising. Then the results from the simple model without competition cou ld be driven by an omitted variables problem: If the brand’s own advertising is highly correlated with competitors’ advertising, then we would overstate the impact of advertising on awareness and understate the impact on perceived quality. In fact, we might ? nd no impact of advertising on perceived quality at all if the brand’s own advertising and competitors’ advertising cancel each other out. 5. 5 Category-speci? c effects Perhaps the ideal data for analyzing the effect of advertising are time series of advertising expenditures, brand awareness, and perceived quality for the brands being studied. With long enough time series we could then try to identify for each brand in isolation the effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness and perceived quality. Since such time series are unfortunately not available, we have focused so far on the aggregate effect of advertising expenditures on brand awareness and perceived quality, i. e. , we have constrained the slope parameters in Eqs. 1 and 2 that determine the effect of advertising to be the same across brands. Similarly, we have constrained the carryover parameters in Eqs. 1 and 2 that determine the effect of lagged perceived quality and brand awareness respectively to be the same across brands. As a compromise between the two extremes of brands in isolation versus all brands aggregated, we ? st examine the effect of advertising in different categories. This adds some cross-sectional variation across the brands within a 10 We caution the reader against reading too much into these results: The number and identity of the brands within a subcategory or category varies sometimes widely from year to year in the Brandweek Superbrands surveys. Thus, the sum of competitors’ advertising i s an extremely volatile measure of the competitive environment. Moreover, the number of brands varies from 3 for some subcategories to 10 for others, thus making the sum of competitors’ advertising dif? ult to compare across subcategories. 230 Table 7 Category-speci? c effects Brand awareness Marginal effect Carryover rate Appliances Automobiles Beer, wine, liquor Beverages Computers Consumer electronics Cosmetics and fragrances Credit cards Fast food Food Footwear Health and beauty Household Petrol Pharmaceutical OTC Pharmaceutical prescription Telecommunications Toys Travel 0. 0233 (0. 0167) 0. 00526 (0. 0154) ? 0. 0264 (0. 0423) ? 0. 0245 (0. 0554) 0. 0193** (0. 00777) 0. 0210** (0. 0 How to cite Advertising Impact, Essay examples